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GRAMMAR.tex
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GRAMMAR.tex
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\documentclass[a4paper, 12pt, twoside, final]{article}
\usepackage[margin=2cm]{geometry}
\usepackage{fontspec}
\usepackage{unicode-math}
\usepackage[english]{babel}
\usepackage{csquotes}
\usepackage{array, tabularx, multirow}
\usepackage{longtable}
\usepackage{float}
\usepackage{tabularray}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{wasysym}
\usepackage{xcolor}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage[hidelinks]{hyperref}
\usepackage{tikz}
%\definecolor{bgcolor}{HTML}{2D2A2E}
%\definecolor{fgcolor}{HTML}{FAFCFC}
%\pagecolor{bgcolor}
%\color{fgcolor}
\setmainfont[Numbers=OldStyle]{Minion 3}
\setmathfont{latinmodern-math.otf}
\setmathfont[range=\mathit]{Minion 3 Italic}
%% TODO: Remove this and fix overfull boxes.
\hfuzz=10000pt
%\geometry{showframe}
%% Normalise to NFC.
\XeTeXinputnormalization=1
%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Environment and Layout
%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\ExplSyntaxOn
\makeatletter
\edef \tableofcontents {
\noexpand \section \noexpand* {
Contents
\noexpand\@mkboth { Contents } { Contents }
}
\noexpand\@starttoc{toc}
}
\cs_generate_variant:Nn \seq_set_split_keep_spaces:Nnn { Nnx }
\def \dlabelstyle #1 {
\def\descriptionlabel ##1 {\hspace\labelsep \normalfont #1 ##1}
}
\cs_new:Npn \__two_cols:nnnnn #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 {
\ifvmode\else\unskip\par\fi
\noindent\leavevmode
\hbox to \hsize {
\hbox to #3 { \vtop {#1} }
\hskip #4
\hbox to #5 { \vtop {#2} }
} \par
}
\NewDocumentCommand \TwoCols {
D[]{.475\hsize}
D[]{.475\hsize}
D[]{0pt plus 1fill}
+m
+m
} {
\__two_cols:nnnnn{#4}{#5}{#1}{#3}{#2}
}
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_insert_table_header: {
%% Generating columns doesn’t seem to work, so this hack will do. If you
%% need a gloss with more columns than this, I suggest you pause and take
%% a moment to reflect on your life choices.
\begin {tabular} { @{} *{100}l }
}
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_table_start: {
\ifvmode\else\unskip\par\fi
\addvspace { 8pt }
%\vtop{\iffalse}\fi
\noindent
}
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_table_end: {
\end {tabular}
\ifvmode\else\par\fi
\addvspace { 8pt }
%\iffalse{\fi}
\everypar { \setbox\z@\lastbox \everypar{} }
}
%% Rescan a token list.
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_rescan:n #1 {
{ \tl_rescan:nn {} { #1 } }
}
%% Format a single line of a gloss.
%%
%% The line number must be stored in \g_tempb_int.
%%
%% This takes the line #1 and formats it, inserting the contents of #2
%% at the start of each line, and #3 at the beginning of each column.
%% #3 can be a macro that takes one argument, in which case it will be
%% passed the contents of the column.
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_format_line:nnn #1 #2 #3 {
#2
\seq_set_split:Nnn \l_tmpa_seq { | } { #1 }
\bool_set_true:N \l_tmpa_bool
\seq_map_inline:Nn \l_tmpa_seq {
\bool_if:NF \l_tmpa_bool { & }
\bool_set_false:N \l_tmpa_bool
#3 { \__gloss_rescan:n {##1} }
}
}
%% Format a gloss.
%%
%% This iterates over all lines in #1 and calls #2 on it.
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_format:nn #1 #2 {
\int_gset:Nn \g_tmpb_int { 1 }
\tl_map_inline:nn { #1 } {
\tl_if_blank:nF { ##1 } {
%% Insert \cr or table header if this is the first line. We
%% need to emit this here, as otherwise, TeX will encounter
%% unexpandable tokens before the formatter (#2) is executed,
%% which will start the cell before any actual content has
%% been inserted; this means we can no longer tell TeX to
%% \omit the cell header, which causes \multicolumn to break
%% horribly.
%%
%% By emitting the table header here, we ensure that instead,
%% the formatter is the first thing TeX gets to see after the
%% initial table header and after every \cr.
\int_compare:nNnTF { \g_tmpb_int } > { 1 } { \\ } { \__gloss_insert_table_header: }
#2 { ##1 }
\int_gincr:N \g_tmpb_int
}
}
}
%% Two lines means object language + gloss.
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_two_lines:n #1 {
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter:n ##1 {
\__gloss_format_line:nnn { ##1 } {} {
\int_compare:nNnT { \g_tmpb_int } = { 1 } { \itshape }
}
}
\__gloss_format:nn { #1 } { \__formatter:n }
}
%% Full gloss (text, object language, pronunciation, gloss, and translation).
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_five_lines:n #1 {
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_i:n ##1 { \multicolumn {100} {@{}l} {\itshape\bfseries\__gloss_rescan:n {##1}} }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_ii:n ##1 { \__gloss_format_line:nnn {##1} {} {\itshape} }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_iii:n ##1 { \__gloss_format_line:nnn {##1} {} {} }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_iv:n ##1 { \__gloss_format_line:nnn {##1} {} {} }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_v:n ##1 { \multicolumn {100} {@{}l} {\__gloss_rescan:n {##1}} }
\__gloss_format:nn { #1 } {
\cs:w __formatter_ \int_to_roman:n \g_tmpb_int :n \cs_end:
}
}
%% Full gloss w/o IPA (text, object language, gloss, and translation).
\cs_new:Npn \__gloss_four_lines:n #1 {
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_i:n ##1 { \multicolumn {100} {@{}l} {\itshape\bfseries \__gloss_rescan:n {##1} } }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_ii:n ##1 { \__gloss_format_line:nnn {##1} {} {\itshape} }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_iii:n ##1 { \__gloss_format_line:nnn {##1} {} {} }
\cs_gset:Npn \__formatter_iv:n ##1 { \multicolumn {100} {@{}l} {\__gloss_rescan:n {##1}} }
\__gloss_format:nn { #1 } {
\cs:w __formatter_ \int_to_roman:n \g_tmpb_int :n \cs_end:
}
}
\NewDocumentCommand \gloss {
> { \exp_args:Nx \SplitList { \iow_char:N \^^M } } +v
} {
\__gloss_table_start:
%% Count lines.
\int_gset:Nn \g_tmpa_int { 0 }
\tl_map_inline:nn { #1 } {
\tl_if_blank:nF { ##1 } {
\int_gincr:N \g_tmpa_int
}
}
%% Dispatch the appropriate number of lines.
\int_case:nnF { \g_tmpa_int } {
2 { \__gloss_two_lines:n { #1 } }
4 { \__gloss_four_lines:n { #1 } }
5 { \__gloss_five_lines:n { #1 } }
}
%% Any other line count is an error.
{
\msg_new:nnn { gloss } { too-many-lines } {
Too~many~lines~in~gloss:~expected~2,~got~\int_use:N \g_tmpa_int
}
\msg_error:nn { gloss } { too-many-lines }
}
%% Close the table.
\__gloss_table_end:
}
%% Process two words. Used by \multigloss.
\cs_new:Npn \__uf_multigloss_word:nn #1 #2 {
\allowbreak
\hbox {
\begin{tabular}{@{}l}
\itshape \tl_rescan:nn {} {#1} \\
\noalign{\vskip-6pt}
\tl_rescan:nn {} {#2} \\
\end{tabular}
}
\space
}
%% Process two lines. Used by \multigloss.
\cs_new:Npn \__uf_multigloss:NN #1 #2 {
\ifvmode\noindent\leavevmode\fi
%% Split the lines into words.
\seq_set_split_keep_spaces:Nnx \l_tmpa_seq { | } { #1 }
\seq_set_split_keep_spaces:Nnx \l_tmpb_seq { | } { #2 }
%% Iterate over each word in the two lines.
\seq_mapthread_function:NNN \l_tmpa_seq \l_tmpb_seq \__uf_multigloss_word:nn
}
%% Typeset two-line glosses across multiple lines.
\NewDocumentCommand \multigloss {
> { \exp_args:Nx \SplitList { \iow_char:N \^^M } } +v
} {
\ifvmode\else\unskip\par\fi
\begingroup
\linespread { 1.5 } \selectfont
\raggedright
\begin{sloppypar}
%% Iterate over each line, two lines at a time.
\bool_gset_true:N \g_tmpa_bool
\tl_map_inline:nn { #1 } {
%% Ignore empty lines entirely.
\tl_if_blank:nF { ##1 } {
\bool_if:NTF \g_tmpa_bool {
\tl_gset:Nn \g_tmpa_tl { ##1 }
} {
\tl_gset:Nn \g_tmpb_tl { ##1 }
\__uf_multigloss:NN \g_tmpa_tl \g_tmpb_tl
}
%% Flip.
\bool_gset_inverse:N \g_tmpa_bool
}
}
\end{sloppypar}
\endgroup
}
\def \footnoterule {
\kern -3\p@
\hrule \@width .4\columnwidth
\kern 2.6\p@
}
\def \@makefntext #1 {
\setlength \parindent { 1em }
\noindent {
\mbox {
\llap { {}\textsuperscript{\@thefnmark} \kern.5pt }
} { #1 }
}
}
\newlength{\EnumItemSep} \EnumItemSep-3pt
\newenvironment { enum } [1] [0] {
\vspace { -.5em }
\settowidth \leftmargini { 99.\hskip\labelsep }
\begin { enumerate }
\setcounter { enumi } { #1 }
\itemsep \EnumItemSep
} {
\end { enumerate }
\vspace { -.5em }
}
\newenvironment { dlist } [1] [{}] {
\vspace { -.5em }
\begingroup
\def\descriptionlabel ##1 {\hspace\labelsep \normalfont #1 ##1}
\settowidth \leftmargini { 99.\hskip\labelsep }
\begin { description }
\itemsep \EnumItemSep
} {
\end { description }
\endgroup
\vspace { -.5em }
}
\def\pfabbr{{\normalfont\scshape pf\space}}
\def\pf#1{\pfabbr\textit{#1}}
\cs_new:Npn \items {
\ifvmode\else\unskip\par\fi
\addvspace\medskipamount
\begingroup
\itemize\kern-\topsep
\itemsep0pt
}
\cs_new:Npn \enditems {
\enditemize\kern-\topsep
\endgroup
\addvspace\medskipamount
}
%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Settings and Utility
%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\def \UF { \bfseries \itshape }
\let \nf \normalfont
\def \d {ḍ}
\def \D {Ḍ}
\def \b {ḅ}
\def \B {Ḅ}
\def \L {\textsuperscript{L}}
\def \N {\textsuperscript{N}}
\long \def \s #1 {{\normalfont\scshape #1 }}
\let \w \textit
\let \Sl \textbackslash
\let \Sub \textsubscript
\let \Sup \textsuperscript
\def \parheading #1 { \noindent \textbf{#1} }
\def \Item #1 {
\item [ \textsc{\textbf{#1}} ]
}
\def \Paragraph #1 {
\ifvmode\else\unskip\par\fi
\addvspace \bigskipamount
\noindent \leavevmode \ignorespaces \textbf{#1} \par
\everypar { \setbox 0 \lastbox \everypar {} }
\nobreak
}
\frenchspacing
\raggedbottom
\AtBeginDocument {
\def \today {
\int_value:w \day \space
\int_case:nn { \month } {
{ 1 } { January }
{ 2 } { February }
{ 3 } { March }
{ 4 } { April }
{ 5 } { May }
{ 6 } { June }
{ 7 } { July }
{ 8 } { August }
{ 9 } { September }
{ 10 } { October }
{ 11 } { November }
{ 12 } { December }
} \space
\int_value:w \year
}
}
\def \ps@ultrafrench {
\let \@oddfoot \@empty
\let \@evenfoot \@empty
\let \@mkboth \markboth
\def \@evenhead { \thepage \hfil \leftmark }
\def \@oddhead { \rightmark \hfil \thepage }
\def \sectionmark ##1 {
\markboth {
\ifnum \c@secnumdepth > \z@
\thesection\quad
\fi
##1
} { }
}
\def \subsectionmark ##1 {
\markright {
\ifnum \c@secnumdepth > \@ne
\thesubsection\quad
\fi
##1
}
}
}
\pagestyle{ultrafrench}
\makeatother
\ExplSyntaxOff
%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Document
%% %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\title{A Comprehensive Diachronic Grammar of Modern ULTRAFRENCH}
\author{Ætérnal, Annwan, Agma Schwa}
\date{\today}
\begin{document}
\makeatletter
\thispagestyle{empty}
\begin{titlepage}
\null\vfil
\vskip 60\p@
\centering
\large
{\LARGE \@title \par}%
\vskip1em
{\LARGE \w{Ŷrávér Réy’ác’hraúníc’hâ Rzaúsdâ Át’hebhaú Raúl} \par}%
\vskip 1em
{\Large \@author \par}%
\vskip .5em
\today \par
\vfil\null
\end{titlepage}
\clearpage
\makeatother
\setcounter{page}{1}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\tableofcontents
\clearpage
\section{Phonology and Evolution from Modern Pseudo-French}\label{sec:phonology}
\thispagestyle{empty}
{\def\arraystretch{1.25}\setlength{\tabcolsep}{.4em}
\noindent\begin{tabular}{@{}|l|l|l|l|l|l|l@{\quad}|l|l|l|} \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
& Labial & Coronal & Palatal & Velar & Glottal && & Front & Back \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Stop & b, bʱ & d & & & && Close & i ĩ ĩ̃ i̥ y ẙ & u ũ ũ̃ u̥ \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Nasal & & n & & & && Near-close & ʏ̃ ʏ̃̃ & \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Fricative & ɸ β & s z, θ ð & ɕ ʑ, (ç) & x & h && Close-mid & e ẽ ẽ̃ e̥ & o o̥ \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Fric. (ʁ-coloured) & βʶ & sʶ zʶ, ɮ̃ʶ & ɕʶ ʑʶ & & && Mid & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{ə ə̥} \\\cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Trill & & & & ʀ & && Open-mid & ɛ ɛ̃ ɛ̃̃ & ɔ̃ ɔ̃̃ \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Approximant & ʋ̃ & & ɥ ɥ̃, j̊ & ɰ ɰ̃ & && Near-open & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{ɐ ɐ̥} \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
Lateral Fricative & & ɮ̃ & ʎ̝̃ & & && Open & & ɑ̃ ɑ̃̃ \\ \cline{1-6} \cline{8-10}
\end{tabular}}\bigskip
\parheading{Legend}\par\noindent
Ṽ = nasalised vowel, Ṽ̃ = nasal vowel, V = any vowel (or, in conjunction with Ṽ/Ṽ̃, oral vowel)\\
N = nasal consonant, C̃ = nasalised consonant (e.g. /ɰ̃/, but not true nasals), C = any consonant.\medskip
\def\scalpha{\kern-2pt\raisebox{2pt}{\Sub α}}
%% NOTE: In case the changes below and the ones listed
%% in the Lexurgy file differ, the latter are authoritative,
%% as I may forget to update these here sometimes.
\TwoCols[.45\hsize][.45\hsize][0pt]{
\parheading{Preliminary Changes}
\begin{enum}
\item g, w > ɰ ⟨r⟩
\item œ, œ̃, ø > y, ʏ̃, ʏ̃
\item ɔ > o
\item u > v / \_o
\item y > j / \_(\#)V
\item V\scalpha > $\emptyset$ / \_\#V\scalpha
\item lj, lɥ > ʎ
\item j > ɥ ⟨y’⟩
\item ɰ > ɥ / \_i
\item ʁʁ > ʀ
\item sʁ, ʃʁ, zʁ, ʒʁ > sʶ, ʃʶ, zʶ, ʒʶ
\item vʁ > vʶ
\item ʁ > ɰ
\item C > $\emptyset$ / \#\_C
\item C > $\emptyset$ / C\_\#
\item k > x ⟨c’h⟩
\item ʃ, ʃʶ, ʒ, ʒʶ > ɕ, ɕʶ, ʑ, ʑʶ
\item nt > nθ
\item t > ḍ [d] (‘hard /d/’)
\item p > \b{} [b] (‘hard /b/’)
\item f, v, vʶ > ɸ ⟨f⟩, β ⟨b’h⟩, βʶ ⟨v́⟩
\end{enum}
}{
\parheading{Great Nasal Shift}
\begin{enum}[21]
\item Ṽl > ɰ̃ ⟨w⟩
\item V > Ṽ̃ / [NC̃ɥɰ]\_N\#
\item V, Ṽ > Ṽ, Ṽ̃ / \_[NC̃ɥɰ], [NC̃ɥɰ]\_
\item ə̃, ə̃̃, ã, ã̃, õ, õ̃ > ɛ̃, ɛ̃̃, ɑ̃, ɑ̃̃, ɔ̃, ɔ̃̃
\item N, C̃ > $\emptyset$ / V\_\#
\item ɲ, ŋ > n
\item V, Ṽ > $\emptyset$ / N \_ N
\item m, l, ʎ > ʋ̃ ⟨v⟩, ɮ̃ ⟨l⟩, ʎ̝̃ ⟨ḷ⟩
\item ɮ̃ɰ, ɰɮ̃ > ɮ̃ʶ ⟨ł⟩
\end{enum}
\parheading{Intervocalic Lenition (/ V\_V is implied)}
\begin{enum}[30]
\item x, s, z > h
\item ɕ, ɮ̃, ʎ̝̃ > j̊ ⟨c̣⟩, ɥ̃, ɰ̃
\item nθ > n
\item d, ḍ, b, \b{} > ð ⟨d’h⟩, θ ⟨t’h⟩, β, bʱ ⟨bh⟩
\item ɸ > β / V\_V
\end{enum}
\parheading{Late Changes}
\begin{enum}[35]
\item C[+stop, -alveolar]C\scalpha > C\scalpha
\item C[+stop]C\scalpha[+stop] > C\scalpha
\item h > $\emptyset$ / hV\_
\item ə > $\emptyset$ / C\_C
\item V[-nasalised, -nasal] > ə̥ / \_\#
\end{enum}
}\medskip
\subsection{Pronunciation, Allophony, and Stress}\label{subsec:pronunciation-allophony-and-stress}
There is not a lot of allophony in UF, save that /x/ is realised as [χ] around back vowels and [ɕ] elsewhere, e.g.
\w{c’húr} /xũɰ/ ‘to shrink’ is pronounced [χũˑˠ]. Furthermore, /h/ is [ç] before variants of /i/ and /y/, and [h] elsewhere.
The vast majority PF words are stressed on the last syllable of the root, e.g. \w{ad’hór} ‘to love’ /aˈðɔ̃ɰ/, but \w{b’had’hóré}
‘you (\s{pl}) love’ /βaˈðɔ̃.ɰɛ̃/. The stress is not indicated in writing, neither in actual texts, nor in this
grammar or in dictionaries. The main exception to this are names, which are generally stressed on the first syllable,
and receive secondary stress on the last syllable,\footnote{That is, unless the name ends in an obvious suffix, in which case the last
syllable before any such suffixes receives secondary stress; however, this is generally quite rare.} e.g. \w{Daúvníc’h} /ˈdɔ̃ʋ̃ˌnĩx/.
The only exception to this rule are certain particles and irregular verbs, some of which have irregular stress; for instance,
the forms of \w{eḍ} ‘to be’ are all stressed on the first syllable. Any such words that deviate from the norm will be pointed
out in this grammar and in dictionaries.
Oral vowels before the stressed syllable are often somewhat muted or reduced, albeit still audible, and stressed vowels are lengthened if they
are nasalised, e.g. the pronunciation of \w{ad’hór}, which we just transcribed as /aˈðɔ̃ɰ/, is actually closer to [ɐ̯ˈðɔ̃ˑɰ].
Word-final voiceless \w{ẹ} is always /ə̥/. Finally, non-back vowels that are followed by /ɰ/ or /ɰ̃/ are retracted, e.g. \w{y’ẹ́rẹ́}, the future
stem of \w{y’ẹ́} ‘forbid’, is phonemically /ɥẽˈɰẽ/, but pronounced [ɥɘ̃ˈɰẽ].
Oral vowels have a nasalised and nasal counterpart. /i/ and /u/ do not vary in quality when na\-sa\-lis\-ed.
/a/ is normally [ɐ], but becomes [ɑ] when nasalised or nasal. Similarly, /e/ becomes [ɛ],
/y/ becomes [ʏ], and /o/ becomes [ɔ]. Note that nasalised [ẽ] exists, but it’s
rare. The quality never changes when going from nasalised to nasal. The schwa has no nasal(lised) counterpart. Lastly, oral vowel
also have voiceless counterparts, whose quality is the same as that of the base vowel.
The difference between nasalised vowels and nasal vowels is that the former are merely coarticulated with nasalisation, whereas
the latter are completely and utterly \textit{in the nose}—no air escapes through the mouth when a nasal vowel is articulated, and all
the air flows just through the nose. Middle UF and some modern dialects also distinguish between sinistral and dextral nasal
vowels,\footnote{Sinistral nasal vowels are articulated with the left nostril, and dextral nasal vowels with the right nostril.}
but this distinction is no longer present in the modern standard language.
Initial /ɰ/ is sometimes elided after words that end with /ɰ/.
\subsection{Orthography}
The spelling of most UF sounds is indicated above; the less exotic consonants are spelt as
one might expect. In addition, UF employs a variety of diacritics—though some only in grammatical
material—to differentiate its many sounds with an otherwise unsatisfactory array of symbols.
\subsubsection{Consonants}
As one might expect, /b, d, n, ɸ, s, z, h/ are spelt ⟨b, d, n, f, s, z, h⟩, respectively.
Several fricatives are spelt with an apostrophe followed by a ⟨h⟩, viz. /x/ ⟨c’h⟩, /θ/ ⟨t’h⟩, /ð/ ⟨d’h⟩,
and /β/ ⟨b’h⟩. Apostrophes are also often used to mark shortened forms, e.g. \w{t’hé},
the optative negation particle, is shortened to \w{t’h’} before vowels.
Conventional letters are used for rather unconventional sounds, mostly for diachronic reasons:
/l/ does not exist in UF, so ⟨l⟩ is either /ɮ̃/ or /ʎ̝̃/, ⟨v⟩ is /ʋ̃/, ⟨j⟩ is /ʑ/, ⟨c⟩ is /ɕ/, ⟨r⟩ is /ɰ/, ⟨w⟩ is /ɰ̃/. The vowel
/y/ is spelt ⟨y⟩, and its consonantal equivalent /ɥ/ as well as nasalised /ɥ̃/ are spelt with an apostrophe, that is
⟨y’⟩ and ⟨ý’⟩. The ʁ-fricated fricatives /βʶ, ɮ̃ʶ, sʶ, ɕʶ, ʑʶ, zʶ/
are spelt ⟨v́, ł, ś, ć, ȷ́, ź⟩, respectively.
Double consonant letters indicate a lengthened consonant; these are rare, but they can occur in any position. The only
exception to this is ⟨rr⟩, which is not /ɰː/, but rather /ʀ/. UF does not have phonemic vowel length (though recall
that phonetic lengthening occurs in some situations), so a double vowel letter is always pronounced as two separate vowels.
\subsubsection{Hard \textit{ḅ} and \textit{ḍ}}
The ‘hard’ voiced \w{ḅ}, \w{ḍ} which are pronounced exactly like their regular counterparts, are normally also spelt ⟨b⟩ and
⟨d⟩. However, a dot below is commonly used in dictionaries and grammatical material to distinguish between the two
as they differ from one another in how they mutate.
In Early Modern UF (and Middle UF before it), such as in the writings of renowned poet and writer \s{Jac’h Yý’is Bèrtrá (J.\,Y.\,B.)
Snet’h}, \w{ḅ} and \w{ḍ} sometimes retain their diachronic spellings of ⟨p(h)⟩ and ⟨t⟩—and \w{bh} is sometimes spelt
⟨p’h⟩ instead—though this is not consistent and often not applied word-internally or between vowels in general—even across multiple
words—where these sounds were already voiced even at the time.
For instance, Snet’h commonly writes e.g. \w{naut} ‘our’ for \w{nauḍ}, but e.g. \w{labraúc} ‘they came up to’ for \w{laḅraúc}, and not
\w{lapraúc} or \w{laphraúc}, is found in the very same passage. This style is often imitated by writers who want to seem archaic, but failing to
understand the pronunciation of the time, they tend to use ⟨t⟩ and ⟨p(h)⟩ everywhere, even word-internally.
\subsubsection{\textit{rrr}}
The sequence ⟨rrr⟩ could be /ʀɰ/ or /ɰʀ/. In grammatical material, this is disambiguated by writing either \w{rr-r}, e.g.
\w{férr-rásvát’h} ‘a long, deep sleep’, or \w{r-rr}, respectively, but in actual text, both are written \w{rrr}.
\subsubsection{Vowels}
The vowels are mostly spelt as one might expect; nasalised vowels are indicated by an acute, and nasal vowels by a circumflex.
The variants of /i, y, u, a, e/ are spelt with ⟨i, y, u, a, e⟩ as their base letters. Nasal /ẽ/ and /ẽ̃/ as well as Schwa are
indicated by adding a dot below the ⟨e⟩ in grammars and dictionaries only; the vowel /o/ is spelt ⟨au⟩ or ⟨o⟩ for diachronic reasons;\footnote{As is always the
case in cases like this, hypercorrection is frequent, and ⟨au⟩ is often preferred word-initially, even if the
PF root was spelt with ⟨o⟩. In general, UF speakers seem to prefer ⟨au⟩ over ⟨o⟩, except word-finally and after ⟨w⟩, except
that in verb affixes, \w{au} is quite common word-finally. The sequence ⟨wau⟩ does not exist in UF.} in the case of
⟨au⟩, the acute and circumflex are added to the ⟨u⟩. The diphthong /au/ is spelt ⟨äu⟩, ⟨aü⟩, or with accents on both vowels. Oral
/ɛ/ is rare and is spelt ⟨è⟩. Word-initially and word-finally, a grave indicates that the vowel is voiceless. Word-final
voiceless /ə/ is always voiceless.\footnote{Thus, a word-final ⟨e⟩
can be /e/, such as in \w{vvaúríhe} /ʋ̃ːɔ̃ɰĩˈhe/ ‘to remember’, or /ə̥/, such as in \w{dale} /daɮ̃ə̥/ ‘table’. As a rule of thumb, it is
usually /e/ at the end of verb stems—but not verb forms in general—and /ə̥/ elsewhere. Fortunately they are differentiated by a
dot below in dictionaries and in this grammar: \w{vvaúríhe} vs \w{ḍalẹ}.}
\subsubsection{Dot Below}
A dot below or above a letter is commonly to indicate
a variety of different things, depending on the letter:
\begin{items}\itemsep .5ex plus .1ex minus .1ex\relax
\item a dot below in \w{ḅ}, \w{ḍ} indicates that they are the ‘hard’ variants of the letter, which are pronounced
the same, but lenited differently;
\item a dot below in \w{ḷ} indicates that it is palatal /ʎ̝̃/ instead of alveolar /ɮ̃/;
\item a dot below in \w{ẹ} indicates that it is a schwa;
\item a dot below in \w{ẹ̀} indicates that it is /e̥/;
\item a dot below nasalised \w{ẹ́}, \w{ệ} indicates that they are /ẽ/, /ẽ̃/ instead of /ɛ̃/, /ɛ̃̃/;
\item a dot below in \w{c̣} indicates that it is lenited /j̊/.
\end{items}
\noindent Thus, in non-grammatical writing, the following are indistinguishable:
\begin{items}\itemsep .5ex plus .1ex minus .1ex\relax
\item \w{l} can be palatal /ʎ̝̃/ or alveolar /ɮ̃/;
\item \w{e} can be a schwa, or /e/;
\item \w{é}, \w{ê} can be /ɛ̃/, /ɛ̃̃/ or /ẽ/, /ẽ̃/;
\item \w{c} can be /ɕ/ or /j̊/.
\end{items}
\subsubsection{Other Punctuation Marks}
\noindent Elided initial /ɰ/ is indicated by omitting the \w{r} in writing and attaching the word to the previous one with a hyphen,
e.g. \w{-vá} ‘alas’.
UF seldom uses hyphens to separate or join words and instead prefers to spell them as one word instead; an exception
to this is that affixes that end with a vowel are typically separated from the word they are attached to with a hyphen
if that word starts with (a variant of) the same vowel. For example, the \s{def nom sg} of \w{el} ‘wing’
is \w{láel}, but the plural is \w{lé-el}.
\subsubsection{Lenition and Nasalisation}
Certain morphological elements subject surrounding context to lenition or nasalisation. Nasalisation affects vowels,
which become more nasal (that is, (voiceless) oral vowels become nasalised, and nasalised vowels become nasal; nasal
vowels are unaffected), as well as \w{ḍ}, which becomes \w{n}, unless it would directly be preceded by another \w{n}, in
which case it is simply deleted.
Lenition is more complicated; it affects only consonants and causes a softening similar to what happened diachronically
between vowels. All ʁ-fricated consonants simply lose their ʁ-frication, and a number of other consonants are also
affected by lenition (note the difference between \w{ḅ, ḍ} and \w{b, d} here):
\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\itshape
\begin{tabular}{l|lll|l|l|ll|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|}
\bf Consonant & c’h & s & z & sw & c & b & f & ḅ & d & ḍ & v́ & ł & ś & ć & ȷ́ & ź \\\hline
\bf Lenited & \multicolumn{3}{c|}{h} & ź & c̣ & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{b’h} & bh & d’h & t’h & v & l & s & c & j & z \\
\end{tabular}
\nf
\caption{Consonants Affected by Lenition}\label{tab:lenition}
\end{table}
\noindent Note that double consonants are typically unaffected by morphological lenition, e.g. \w{dír} ‘to say’,
whose subjunctive stem is \w{díss}, forms \w{aúdíssâ} (rougly ‘we should have said’), not *\w{aúdíhhâ}.
\subsubsection{Glossing}
To simplify glosses, cases are assumed to be definite and singular unless otherwise stated, and verb forms are
assumed to be indicative, present tense, and active, unless otherwise stated.
\subsection{Diachrony and Derivation}\label{subsec:diachrony-and-derivation}
The PF infinitive endings (\w{-ir} etc.) became progressively more vestigial in Middle UF and were eventually
often dropped completely in derivation, e.g. \w{auḍé} ‘obtain’ from earlier *\w{auḅḍénír}, later resulting in
a need for new infinitive affixes to be formed to distinguish infinitives from the base form, thus giving
rise to e.g. \w{dauḍé} ‘to obtain’.
The suffix \w{-t’he}, \s{fut} \w{-ḍe}, \s{subj} \w{-t’hes}, is a productive derivational suffix that can be used to turn a
noun ‘X’ into a verb that roughly means ‘to use X’, e.g. \w{ac} ‘axe’ $\to$ \w{act’he} ‘to cut with an axe’.
The prefix \w{raú(b’hc’h)-} can be prepended to the stem of a verb to turn it into a causative, e.g. \w{raúb’hc’had’hór}
‘cause someone to love’. The \w{-b’hc’h-} is dropped if the word starts with a consonant, in which case it also
lenites, e.g. \w{raúd’hír} ‘make someone say’.
\section{Accidence}\label{sec:accidence}
\subsection{Noun Morphology}\label{subsec:noun-morphology}
UF has 2 declensions. A definite declension and an indefinite declension.
UF has no morphologically separate articles; rather, the old PF articles have been incorporated
into the declensions. Furthermore, UF no longer has a gender distinction in nouns.
\subsubsection{Declension}\label{subsubsec:declension}
The table below shows the most common cases of the definite and indefinite declensions. UF pretty much has no
adpositions and instead uses cases instead.
Many of the case prefixes cause lenition in the initial consonant of the noun, e.g. \w{ḍalẹ} ‘table’ to
\s{def acc sg} \w{s’thalẹ}; this lenition is blocked in the \s{indef acc pl} due to the presence of a hypercorrected ‘s’
in \pf{ces}, e.g. \w{s’ḍalẹ} ‘the tables (\s{acc})’ (not \w{s’thalẹ}, which is the singular), as well as in
less commonly used forms such as the \s{def iness} \w{dwáḍalẹ} ‘on the table’.
\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\noindent\begin{tabular}{l|>{\it}l|>{\it}lll|>{\it}l|>{\it}l}
Definite &\nf Sg&\nf Pl && Indefinite &\nf Sg&\nf Pl\\\cline{1-3}\cline{5-7}
Absolutive & $\emptyset$ & l- && Absolutive & $\emptyset$-\N & $\emptyset$-\L \\
Nominative & lá-\L & lé-\L && Nominative & ŷn-\N & ý-\L \\
Vocative & $\emptyset$-\L & $\emptyset$-\N && Vocative & / & / \\
Partitive & dy-\L & dẹ-\L && Partitive & dŷn-\N & dý-\L \\
Accusative & i-\L & sý-\L && Accusative & s-\L & s- \\
Genitive & á-\L & abh-\L && Genitive & sý-\N & sý-\L \\
Dative & as-\L & a-\L && Dative & an-\N & an-\L \\
Essive & ḅáł- & ḅá- && Essive & ḅárýn- & ḅárý- \\
Abessive & sá-\L & sá-\N && Abessive & sáhýn- & sáhý- \\
Elative & órd- & aúr- && Elative & órdŷn- & aúrŷ- \\
Inessive & dwá- & dwé- && Inessive & dáhŷn- & dáhŷ- \\
Illative & ádá- & ádé- && Illative & ádŷn- & ádŷ- \\
Ablative & rê(d)- & rês- && Ablative & rêdýn- & rêdý- \\
Allative & b’hé-\L & b’hér- && Allative & b’hŷn-\N & b’hý-\L \\
Interessive & aḍá- & aḍé- && Interessive & aḍŷn- & aḍŷ- \\
Superessive & sýr- & dẹ(h)-\L && Superessive & dẹhýn- & sýrŷ- \\
Considerative & słá- & słé- && Considerative & sý’óýn- & sý’óý- \\
Instrumental & b’hel- & b’he- && Instrumental & b’he(hý)(n)- & b’heh- \\
Instructive & ráh-L & ráh- && Instructive & rút’hýn-\N & rút’hýz- \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{UF Declension.}\label{tab:table-uf-declension}
\end{table}
\noindent The table below shows the paradigm of \w{ḍale} ‘table’ in its definite and indefinite forms; this, of course,
is a rather extreme example, as the initial \w{ḍ} means that it is subject to both lenition and nasalisation.
\begin{table}[H]
\centering
\noindent\begin{tabular}{l|>{\it}l|>{\it}lll|>{\it}l|>{\it}l}
Definite &\nf Sg&\nf Pl && Indefinite&\nf Sg&\nf Pl\\\cline{1-3}\cline{5-7}
Absolutive & ḍalẹ & lḍalẹ && Absolutive & ḍalẹ́ & ḍalẹ \\
Nominative & lát’halẹ & lét’halẹ && Nominative & ŷnalẹ & ýt’halẹ \\
Vocative & t’halẹ & nalẹ && Vocative & / & / \\
Partitive & dyt’halẹ & dẹt’halẹ && Partitive & dŷnalẹ & dýt’halẹ \\
Accusative & it’halẹ & sýt’halẹ && Accusative & st’halẹ & sḍalẹ \\
Genitive & át’halẹ & abht’halẹ && Genitive & sýnalẹ & sýt’halẹ \\
Dative & ast’halẹ & at’halẹ && Dative & analẹ & ant’halẹ \\
Essive & ḅáłḍalẹ & ḅáḍalẹ && Essive & ḅárýnḍale & ḅárýḍale \\
Abessive & sát’halẹ & sánalẹ && Abessive & sáhýnḍale & sáhýḍale \\
Elative & órdḍalẹ & aúrḍalẹ && Elative & órdŷnḍalẹ & aúrŷḍalẹ \\
Inessive & dwáḍalẹ & dwéḍalẹ && Inessive & dáhŷnḍalẹ & dáhŷḍalẹ \\
Illative & ádáḍalẹ & ádéḍalẹ && Illative & ádŷnḍalẹ & ádŷḍalẹ \\
Ablative & rêḍalẹ & rêsḍalẹ && Ablative & rêdýnḍalẹ & rêdýḍalẹ \\
Allative & b’hét’halẹ & b’hérḍalẹ && Allative & b’hŷnalẹ & b’hýt’halẹ \\
Interessive & aḍáḍalẹ & aḍéḍalẹ && Interessive & aḍŷnḍalẹ & aḍŷḍalẹ \\
Superessive & sýrḍalẹ & dẹt’halẹ && Superessive & dẹhýnḍalẹ & sýrŷḍalẹ \\
Considerative & słáḍalẹ & słéḍalẹ && Considerative & sý’óýnḍalẹ & sý’óýḍalẹ \\
Instrumental & b’helḍalẹ & b’heḍalẹ && Instrumental & b’hehýḍalẹ & b’hehḍalẹ \\
Instructive & ráht’halẹ & ráhḍalẹ && Instructive & rút’hýnalẹ & rút’hýzḍalẹ \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Paradigm of \w{ḍalẹ}.}\label{tab:vocalic-declension}
\end{table}
\noindent
The inessive, interessive, superessive, illative, elative, ablative, and allative are collectively called ‘locatives’ and
indicate the position of an object or movement towards or away from an object, e.g. \w{B’hét’hebhaú} ‘to France’.
\subsubsection{Absolutive}
The absolutive case has two main uses: First, it is used for the subject and predicate noun of predicative sentences,
i.e. ‘X’ in ‘to be X’, e.g. \w{Aúsó ḍe ráhó} ‘We are all fish’, as well as for the subject of a sentence whose predicate
is an adjective verb, e.g. \w{ráhó sausc’hýr} ‘the fish is dark’.
Secondly, it turns nouns into modifier nouns, e.g.
\w{árḍihyl lývy’ér} ‘light particle (as in, a particle of light)’. In this second use, the modifier is generally
placed second, after the noun it modifies, though this is only mandatory if ambiguity would arise otherwise.
Lastly, the \s{abs sg} is also used as the citation form of a noun.
\subsubsection{Nominative}
The nominative is one of the most common cases in UF and marks the subject of an active sentence, e.g.
\w{Seb’h dwásẹ láraúb’hẹ} ‘The robot was here’. Apart from this, the \s{nom} isn’t really used in UF.
The \s{indef nom sg} \w{ŷn-} prefix and some other forms nasalise nouns; as a reminder, this means that in
nouns starting with \w{ḍ}, the \w{ḍ} is deleted, e.g. \w{ŷnalẹ} ‘a table’; it causes nasalisation in words
that start with a vowel e.g. \w{ehyó} ‘shield’ to \w{ŷnéhyó} ‘a shield’. As lenition, nasalisation too is
blocked in rarer forms, e.g. \s{indef iness} \w{dáhŷnḍalẹ} ‘on a table’.
\subsubsection{Vocative}
The vocative is a rare case that is used to address someone or something, e.g. \w{C̣ár!} ‘O Charles!’. The vocative
only occurs in the definite and usually with proper nouns.\footnote{The indefinite \s{voc}
does not exist, as that would be nonsense.} Note that the vocative is not marked by an affix, but
rather by mutation only, e.g. \w{C̣ár} from \w{Cár}.
\subsubsection{Accusative and Partitive}
These two cases, while often different in meaning, are almost identical in grammatical purpose: Their main use is to
mark the direct object of a verb. While some verbs, e.g. \w{ub’hrá} ‘to be
able to’ always take a \s{part}, and others always take an \s{acc}, the difference between the two, in most contexts,
is one of semantics. There is hardly a grammatical construction that admits the \s{acc} in which the \s{part} would be
ungrammatical, and vice versa.
To elaborate, the \s{acc} indicates that an action is being or has been performed in its entirety or to completion, e.g.
\w{jlí sliv́uhé} ‘I peruse a book’ vs \w{jlí dŷnliv́uhé} ‘I read (\s{pres}) from a book’ or ‘I am reading a book’. Consequently,
\s{pres ant} forms, which are mainly perfective, generally take the \s{acc}, e.g. \w{jlíé iliv́uhé} ‘I’ve read the book’,
whereas \s{pret} forms, which are mainly imperfective, generally take the \s{part}, e.g. \w{jlíá dyliv́uhé} ‘I was reading
(from) the book’. As most conversations generally concern matters that are relevant to the present and thus still incomplete,
the \s{part} ends up being the commoner of the two cases.
Both cases are also used to express a ‘passive’, as UF has no traditional morphological passive in that the so-called
‘active’ and ‘passive’ affixes are really ‘agent’ and ‘patient’ affixes. As such, a ‘passive’ form is construed by
omitting the agent affix; the ‘subject’, if there is any, will then be in the \s{acc} or \s{part}, e.g. \w{sylí dýliv́uhé}
‘the book is being read’.
Lastly, the they are also used in a construction known as the \s{aci/pci} (see §~\ref{subsec:aci-pci}).
\subsubsection{Genitive}
The \s{gen} case is used to indicate possession or belonging. The possessor can precede or follow its possessee. Typically,
the \s{gen} follow the possessee, but if the possessee is qualified with adjectives, then the adjectives must follow the
possessee immediately, lest they end up qualify the genitive instead, and thus, the genitive is placed first.
\subsubsection{Dative}
The \s{dat} case is used to indicate the indirect object of some verbs, \w{jdónẹ́ḷẹ} ‘I bestow upon him’. Note that some
verbs, however, may govern a different case instead, such as the allative. Unlike most other cases, there actually is
a dative affix (see §~\ref{subsubsec:dative-affixes}) that can be added to a verb in some cases.
Another use of the dative is to indicate a beneficiary or recipient in a more general sense, e.g. \w{jsyfér asvẹ} ‘I did
it for me/us’.
\subsubsection{Essive}
The \s{ess} case is used to mean ‘as X’, ‘like X’, ‘in the form of X’, or ‘in the role of X’, e.g. \w{lẹt’hiy’e dyt’halẹ ḅárýny’éjúré}
‘he uses the table as a chair’.
\subsubsection{Abessive}
The \s{abess} case means ‘without’, e.g. \w{sá-árb} ‘without the tree’.
\subsubsection{Inessive}
The \s{iness} indicates that an object is inside another, e.g. \w{dwávnásḍér} ‘in the castle’. For objects which you tend
to be on top of rather than inside of, the \s{iness} typically means ‘on (top of)’, e.g. \w{dwáḍalẹ} ‘on the table’, but
can still mean ‘in’ depending on the context, e.g. \w{se jaý’aú dwáḍalẹ} ‘the nail is in the table’.
Furthermore, the \s{iness} is used not only for places, but also time, e.g. \w{dwávíd’hẹ} ‘at noon’.
\subsubsection{Superessive}
The \s{spress} case means ‘above’, e.g. \w{sýrḍalẹ} ‘above the table’. Note that it normally does \textit{not} mean
‘on’; for that, the \s{iness} is generally used instead. In rare cases, however, the \s{spress} \textit{is} used to mean
‘on’; this is mainly the case for nouns that refer to images, pictures, statues, and other forms of (artistic) imagery,
e.g. \w{dẹhýnrál} ‘on a canvas’, \w{dẹhýnváj} ‘in a picture’.
The \w{h} in the \s{spress def pl} is omitted if the following sound is a consonant, e.g. \w{dẹhárb} ‘above the trees’
but \w{dẹt’halẹ} ‘above the tables’.
\subsubsection{Ablative}
The \s{abl} signifies motion away from or off an object, e.g. \w{rêvá} ‘away from the mast’.
The \w{d} in the \s{def abl sg} and is omitted if the noun starts with a consonant, e.g. \w{rêḍalẹ} ‘from the table’; be
careful especially with words that start with \w{s}, whose \s{abl sg} is often mistaken for a plural, e.g. \w{rêsol}
‘from the floor’, but \w{rêssol} ‘from the floors’.
\subsubsection{Elative}
The \s{ela} expresses motion out of or down from something—whether the sense is ‘out of’ or ‘down from’ depends on the
same criteria as the \s{iness}: if the latter means ‘in’, the former means ‘out of’, and vice versa. E.g.
\w{jrét’hír ijaý’au órdḍalẹ} ‘I pull the nail out of the table’.
When paired with the \s{ill}, the meaning of the two is often ‘from X to Y’, or, if the word is the same, ‘X after X’,
or ‘X and X again’, signifying repetition, e.g. \w{órḍraúvá ádásaul} ‘from moon to sun’; \w{órdy’úr ádáy’úr} ‘day after
day’.
\subsubsection{Considerative}
The \s{cons} case is a bit of a weird on and can be translated as ‘according to’, or ‘in the opinion of’, and is used to
express the opinion of the speaker or point out something as an opinion, belief, or hypothesis of someone or something.
\subsubsection{Instrumental}
The \s{instr} case is used to indicate the instrument or means using or by which an action is performed, e.g. \w{b’heac}
‘with an axe’.
The \w{hý} in the \s{indef instr sg} may be omitted arbitrarily, particularly in literary language; there
isn’t really any rule as to when this happens, but it is most common in words that start with a fricative. However, the \w{n}
is always retained if the \w{hý} is omitted, e.g. we have \w{b’henc’hánár} or sometimes \w{b’hehýc’hánár} ‘by boat’, but never
*\w{b’hehýnc’hánár} or *\w{b’hec’hánár}.
The \w{n} in the \s{indef instr sg} is omitted according to the same rules as the \w{d} in the \s{def abl sg}.
\subsubsection{Instructive}
The \s{insv} case is used for the ‘subject’ of a so-called \textit{instructive absolute}, which is similar to the
\textit{ablative absolute} in Latin or the \textit{genitive absolute} in Ancient Greek, e.g. \w{ráht’halẹ âdárér,
raḅraúcó b’héárb} ‘the table thrown, we approach the tree’. It is not used outside of this construction.
\subsubsection{Negation}\label{subsubsec:noun-negation}
Nouns, as well as proper adjectives and adverbs (i.e. those which are not formed from an adjective verb) are negated
using the particle \w{aû}, which may be separated from the noun by a hyphen for clarity, e.g. \w{aûádróid} or \w{aû-ádróid}
‘non-android’.
Improper adjectives and adverbs are negated just like any other verb.
\subsubsection{Diachronic Comments}
The diachrony of these forms is mostly from the PF definite and indefinite pronouns as well as from PF prepositions, though
some forms, such as the
accusative, are borrowed from demonstratives instead (\s{def} from \pf{celui} and \s{indef} from PF \pf{ce}); the definite
partitive forms are from the PF partitive article, and
the indefinite forms are formed with an additional \w{d-} by analogy to the definite forms. The locative cases are combinations
of the articles and PF prepositions. The ablative is from \pf{loin de} ‘away from’. The diachrony of the genitive singular
is unclear.
\subsection{Adjectives}
UF does not have many actual adjectives. Most words in UF are either nouns or verbs, and most ‘adjectives’ are just
participles, which can always be used like adjectives. Indeed, there are a lot of verbs whose meaning is something
along the lines of ‘to be X’, whose present participle behaves like the adjective ‘X’, e.\,g. \w{ḅẹt’hẹ} ‘to be small’
to \w{ḅẹt’hâ} ‘small’ (literally ‘being small’).
Adjectives generally—but not always—follow the noun they modify and are never inflected, e.g. \w{át’halẹ ḅẹt’hâ} ‘of the small table’.
There is no established order of adjectives.
\subsubsection{Adverbs}
Adverbs are formed from adjectives in one of two ways. For adjectives that are not adjective verbs, \w{-(é)vâ} is added,
e.g. \w{c’haú} ‘holy’ becomes \w{c’haúvâ} ‘holily’; the \w{e} is only present if the adjective ends with a consonant. Adjectives that
are derived from adjective verbs instead replace the \w{-â} affix with \w{-vâ}, e.g. \w{réâ} ‘true’ becomes \w{révâ} ‘truly’. This
form \textit{never} inserts an \textit{e}.
\subsubsection{Agent and Patient Nouns}
For adjective verbs, the active and passive participles can be inflected as though they were nouns to form agent and
patient nouns, e.g. \w{lá-ad’hórâ} ‘the lover’ and \w{láhad’hór} ‘the loved one’.
%% ‘lẹ-’: from PF ‘plus’. Comparative prefix.
\subsubsection{Comparison}\label{subsubsec:comparison}
Unlike in many other languages, there are 4 comparatives in UF: The affirming comparative, so called
because it affirms the positive (‘better, and also good’); the denying comparative, which denies the positive
(‘better, but not good’), the sufficient comparative, which indicates that there is just enough of something,
and the neutral comparative, which does not make any statement about the positive (‘better’).
To illustrate the difference between the three: We might say that an ant is ‘bigger’ than a grain of sand, but
an ant is still not big, all things considered. By contrast, an elephant may be ‘smaller’ than a mountain,
but that doesn’t mean that an elephant is small. Finally, a human is small enough to fit through a regular-sized
door.
In UF, the comparatives are expressed by four infixes, which are prefixed directly to the stem. The affirming
comparative prefix is \w{lẹ}, the denying comparative prefix is \w{y’ŷ}, the sufficient comparative prefix is \w{ah},
and the neutral comparative prefix is \w{rê}. Thus, we have \w{ḅẹt’hâ} ‘small’, \w{lẹḅẹt’hâ} ‘smaller, and also small’,
\w{y’ŷḅẹt’hâ} ‘smaller, but not small’, \w{ahḅẹt’hâ} ‘small enough’, and \w{rêḅẹt’hâ} ‘smaller’. Unlike other degrees
of comparison, the sufficient comparative is always regular.
The comparative prefixes can also be applied to verbs, though they usually only make sense for the aforementioned
‘adjective verbs’, e.g. \w{jy’ŷḅẹt’hẹ} ‘I am smaller, but still big’. Note that these prefixes
might cause a verb’s forms to change from vocalic to consonantal, e.g. \w{ebhẹ} ‘to be thick’ (future stem \w{ebhrẹ})
is vocalic \w{náy’ebhraú} ‘we shall be thick’ in the positive, but consonantal \w{aúnraûy’ŷebhraû} ‘we shall be
thicker, but not thick’ in the negative comparative.
The affirming comparative can also be used absolutely, with the meaning of ‘to a large degree’. Thus,
we have \w{ḅẹt’hâ} ‘small’, and \w{lẹḅẹt’hâ} ‘tiny’; sometimes, this also leads to a slight change in meaning
or perception, e.g. \w{ebhâ} ‘thick’, but \w{lẹ-ebhâ} ‘thicc’.
The affirming and denying comparative can also mean ‘too X’ and ‘not X enough’, respectively; thus, \w{lẹḅẹt’hâ}
can also mean ‘too small’, and \w{y’ŷḅẹt’hâ} can also mean ‘not small enough’, though this meaning is somewhat
uncommon in isolation and most commonly found in constructions (see below).
The sufficient comparative can be combined with a clause in the subjunctive to express something along the lines
of ‘so X that \ldots’, expressing that someone’s faculty in X is sufficient to do something, e.g. \w{ahrá le lísá
\ldots} ‘he was so big that he could \ldots’. \w{ah} can also be infixed between the case prefix and stem of a
noun, in which case it has the sense of ‘such’, e.g. \w{lyá sahc’haúnéhás} ‘he had such knowledge (that he could \ldots)’.
The superlative is formed with one of two prefixes: \w{ré\L} and \w{râdvâ}. Be careful not to confuse the former
with the neutral comparative \w{rê}! The two prefixes are largely interchangeable, however, the former is more
literary and also older. The latter is a more recent development to reduce potential ambiguity with the
neutral comparative. Note that \w{ré} lenites, whereas \w{râdvâ} does not. Thus, we have \w{rébhẹt’hâ} or
\w{râdvâḅẹt’hâ} ‘smallest’.
The standard of comparison (viz. the thing being compared against) is marked with the \s{gen} case, e.g. \w{rêrá ábhárb}
‘bigger than the trees’.
\subsubsection{Constructions}
The comparative can be used together with an infinitive, \s{aci}, or \s{pci}. The affirming comparative here has the meaning
of ‘too X to \ldots’, and the denying comparative has the meaning of ‘not X enough to \ldots’. A good illustrative
example of this is the following UF proverb:
\gloss {
Láráhó slẹlúrá b’héd’hẹhẹ dẹnájẹ.
Lá-ráhó|s-lẹ-lúr-á|b’hé\Sl d’hẹhẹ|dẹ-nájẹ
\s{nom}-fish|\s{3n}-\s{aff.comp}-bulky-\s{3sg.pres.ant}|\s{all}\Sl surface|\s{inf}-swim
‘The fish was too bulky to swim to the surface’\footnotemark
}
\footnotetext{This is a very common proverb (often also just \textit{láráhó slẹlúr} ‘The fish is too bulky’)
and roughly means that something has gone too far or gone on for too long (‘Now you’ve done it’ or ‘Now
it’s too late’). Variations of it exists; in the optative, for instance, this proverb means ‘Let’s not overdo this’.}
\subsection{Verbal Morphology}\label{subsec:verbal-morphology}
Verbs in UF are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and voice. Verbal inflexion is mainly done
by means of concatenating a vast set of affixes. This chapter details these affixes, their meanings, uses,
forms, and restrictions in their use.
\subsubsection{Active/Passive Affixes}\label{subsubsec:active-passive-affixes}
The most fundamental affixes in UF are a set of active/subject and passive/object affixes (often referred to as the
‘active/passive affixes’) which can be used on their own or in combination
with one another, though at most one active and one passive affix may be combined in any one finite verb form.\footnote{Doubly
passive forms can occur in rare cases if infinitives are involved; see §~\ref{subsubsec:pronominal-aci}.}
Table~\ref{tab:active-passive-prefixes} below lists those affixes.