diff --git a/.github/workflows/main.yml b/.github/workflows/main.yml index 4a6ec12d6f..3180b0fbc5 100644 --- a/.github/workflows/main.yml +++ b/.github/workflows/main.yml @@ -34,8 +34,8 @@ jobs: - name: Install Rust run: | rustup set profile minimal - rustup toolchain install 1.79 -c rust-docs - rustup default 1.79 + rustup toolchain install 1.81 -c rust-docs + rustup default 1.81 - name: Install Depot run: curl https://raw.githubusercontent.com/cognitive-engineering-lab/depot/main/scripts/install.sh | sh @@ -112,9 +112,20 @@ jobs: # https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rust-lang/rust/master/src/tools/linkchecker/linkcheck.sh # # Cannot use --all here because of the generated redirect pages aren't available. # sh linkcheck.sh book - + + # mdBook does not currently have particularly good support for “external” + # crates. To make the test suite work correctly with `trpl`, we must first + # build `trpl` itself (`mdbook` will not do it), and then explicitly pass + # its `deps` path as a library search path for `mdbook test`. That will make + # sure all the crates can be resolved when running the tests. + - name: Build `trpl` crate + run: | + cd packages/trpl + cargo build + - name: Run mdbook tests - run: mdbook test + run: + mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps - name: Build mdbook run: mdbook build diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 1b74425fe2..9513538f57 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/ADMIN_TASKS.md b/ADMIN_TASKS.md index 7e9ba2cc04..9caff3004c 100644 --- a/ADMIN_TASKS.md +++ b/ADMIN_TASKS.md @@ -133,3 +133,13 @@ $ dot dot/trpl04-01.dot -Tsvg > src/img/trpl04-01.svg In the generated SVG, remove the width and the height attributes from the `svg` element and set the `viewBox` attribute to `0.00 0.00 1000.00 1000.00` or other values that don't cut off the image. + +## Publish a preview to GitHub Pages + +We sometimes publish to GitHub Pages for in-progress previews. The recommended +flow for publishing is: + +- Install the `ghp-import` tool by running `pip install ghp-import` (or `pipx install ghp-import`, using [pipx][pipx]). +- In the root, run `tools/generate-preview.sh` + +[pipx]: https://pipx.pypa.io/stable/#install-pipx diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock index d54e8284e1..493ab8e687 100644 --- a/Cargo.lock +++ b/Cargo.lock @@ -318,9 +318,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows-targets" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6f0713a46559409d202e70e28227288446bf7841d3211583a4b53e3f6d96e7eb" +checksum = "9b724f72796e036ab90c1021d4780d4d3d648aca59e491e6b98e725b84e99973" dependencies = [ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm", "windows_aarch64_msvc", @@ -334,51 +334,51 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "7088eed71e8b8dda258ecc8bac5fb1153c5cffaf2578fc8ff5d61e23578d3263" +checksum = "32a4622180e7a0ec044bb555404c800bc9fd9ec262ec147edd5989ccd0c02cd3" [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9985fd1504e250c615ca5f281c3f7a6da76213ebd5ccc9561496568a2752afb6" +checksum = "09ec2a7bb152e2252b53fa7803150007879548bc709c039df7627cabbd05d469" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_gnu" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "88ba073cf16d5372720ec942a8ccbf61626074c6d4dd2e745299726ce8b89670" +checksum = "8e9b5ad5ab802e97eb8e295ac6720e509ee4c243f69d781394014ebfe8bbfa0b" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "87f4261229030a858f36b459e748ae97545d6f1ec60e5e0d6a3d32e0dc232ee9" +checksum = "0eee52d38c090b3caa76c563b86c3a4bd71ef1a819287c19d586d7334ae8ed66" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "db3c2bf3d13d5b658be73463284eaf12830ac9a26a90c717b7f771dfe97487bf" +checksum = "240948bc05c5e7c6dabba28bf89d89ffce3e303022809e73deaefe4f6ec56c66" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_gnu" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4e4246f76bdeff09eb48875a0fd3e2af6aada79d409d33011886d3e1581517d9" +checksum = "147a5c80aabfbf0c7d901cb5895d1de30ef2907eb21fbbab29ca94c5b08b1a78" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "852298e482cd67c356ddd9570386e2862b5673c85bd5f88df9ab6802b334c596" +checksum = "24d5b23dc417412679681396f2b49f3de8c1473deb516bd34410872eff51ed0d" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bec47e5bfd1bff0eeaf6d8b485cc1074891a197ab4225d504cb7a1ab88b02bf0" +checksum = "589f6da84c646204747d1270a2a5661ea66ed1cced2631d546fdfb155959f9ec" [[package]] name = "xattr" diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml index 2bddb66f9f..20fc14643d 100644 --- a/Cargo.toml +++ b/Cargo.toml @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ exclude = [ "linkchecker", # linkchecker is part of the CI workflow "listings", # these are intentionally distinct from the workspace "tmp", # listings are built here when updating output via tools/update-rustc.sh + "packages/trpl", # manages its own dependencies as a standalone crate # These are used as path dependencies in `rust-lang/rust` (since we are not # publishing them to crates.io), so they cannot be part of this workspace, diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index aab42c572d..581ad8ee79 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -44,6 +44,16 @@ You should install the same version of each preprocessor [used in CI](https://gi Finally, you need [pnpm](https://pnpm.io/installation). +The book also uses two mdbook plugins which are part of this repository. If you +do not install them, you will see warnings when building and the output will not +look right, but you *will* still be able to build the book. To use the plugins, +you should run: + +```bash +$ cargo install --locked --path packages/mdbook-trpl-listing +$ cargo install --locked --path packages/mdbook-trpl-note +``` + ## Building ### With cargo-make @@ -94,7 +104,8 @@ $ start chrome.exe .\book\index.html # Windows (Cmd) To run the tests: ```bash -$ mdbook test +$ cd packages/trpl +$ mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps ``` ## Contributing diff --git a/book.toml b/book.toml index 116028de8c..7323f3e009 100644 --- a/book.toml +++ b/book.toml @@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ additional-css = [ "ferris.css", "theme/semantic-notes.css", "theme/listing.css", + "theme/2018-edition.css", "js-extensions/packages/consent-form/dist/index.css", "js-extensions/packages/feedback/dist/index.css", ] @@ -39,4 +40,7 @@ more-words = "words.dic" [preprocessor.trpl-listing] output-mode = "default" -# [output.linkcheck] \ No newline at end of file +# [output.linkcheck] + +[rust] +edition = "2021" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/ci/dictionary.txt b/ci/dictionary.txt index b5a118c0d2..5f73afd483 100644 --- a/ci/dictionary.txt +++ b/ci/dictionary.txt @@ -55,6 +55,7 @@ bool boolean Boolean Booleans +booleans Bors BorrowMutError BoxMeUp @@ -109,6 +110,7 @@ deallocate deallocated deallocating deallocation +debounce debuginfo decl decrementing @@ -145,10 +147,12 @@ DisplayBacktrace DivAssign DraftPost DSTs +durations ebook ebooks Edsger egular +ElementRef else's emoji encodings @@ -179,6 +183,7 @@ filesystem's filesystems filmmaking Firefox +FirstAwaitPoint FnMut FnOnce formatter @@ -187,6 +192,8 @@ FrenchToast FromIterator FromResidual frontend +FuturesUnordered +GetAwaitPoint getrandom getter getters @@ -197,6 +204,7 @@ grapheme Grapheme growable gzip +handoff hardcode hardcoded hardcoding @@ -241,7 +249,9 @@ inline instantiation internet interoperate +IntoFuture IntoIterator +intra InvalidDigit invariants ioerror @@ -256,6 +266,7 @@ isize iter iterator's JavaScript +JoinAll JoinHandle Kay's kinded @@ -288,12 +299,15 @@ lval macOS Matsakis mathematic +mdbook memoization metadata Metadata metaprogramming mibbit Mibbit +microcontroller +microcontrollers millis minigrep mixup @@ -307,10 +321,12 @@ monomorphized MoveMessage Mozilla mpsc +MSRV msvc MulAssign multibyte multithreaded +multithreading mutex mutex's Mutex @@ -318,6 +334,7 @@ mutexes Mutexes MutexGuard mutext +MyAsyncStateMachine MyBox myprogram namespace @@ -358,7 +375,9 @@ OurError OutlinePrint overloadable overread +PageTitleFuture PanicPayload +parallelizable param parameterize ParseIntError @@ -371,6 +390,7 @@ PlaceholderType polymorphism PoolCreationError portia +postfix powershell PowerShell powi @@ -396,6 +416,8 @@ RangeTo RangeFull README READMEs +ReadFinished +ReceiverStream rect recurse recv @@ -438,6 +460,7 @@ sampleproject screenshot searchstring SecondaryColor +SecondAwaitPoint SelectBox semver SemVer @@ -455,6 +478,7 @@ SliceIndex Smalltalk snuck someproject +SomeType someusername SPDX spdx @@ -470,6 +494,7 @@ stdlib stdout steveklabnik's stringify +StreamExt Stroustrup Stroustrup's struct @@ -502,6 +527,7 @@ TcpListener TcpStream templating test's +TextAwaitPoint TextField That'd there'd @@ -514,6 +540,8 @@ tlborm tlsv TODO TokenStream +Tokio +tokio toml TOML toolchain @@ -538,6 +566,7 @@ uncomment Uncomment uncommenting unevaluated +unhandled Uninstalling uninstall unittests @@ -556,6 +585,7 @@ username USERPROFILE usize UsState +util utils vals variable's diff --git a/dot/trpl17-01.dot b/dot/trpl17-01.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..97bd15e894 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-01.dot @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + + // makes ordering between subgraphs work + newrank = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + subgraph cluster_task_a { + label = "Task A"; + + A1; + A2; + A3; + A4; + + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + + // for vertical alignment purposes only + A0 [style = invis;]; + + // Makes the heights line up between the boxes. + A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_task_b { + label = "Task B"; + + // for horizontal alignment purposes only + // newrank = true; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + + B1; + B2; + B3; + + B0 -> B1 -> B2 -> B3 [style = invis;]; + } + + A1 -> B1 -> A2 -> B2 -> A3 -> A4 -> B3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-02.dot b/dot/trpl17-02.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..07d66a3e4b --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-02.dot @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task 2"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + B3 -> B0 [style = invis;] + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task 1"; + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4; + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt index bb997866a2..0f0bc21025 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt @@ -1,4 +1,10 @@ $ cargo build + Downloading crates ... + Downloaded rand_core v0.6.2 + Downloaded getrandom v0.2.2 + Downloaded rand_chacha v0.3.0 + Downloaded ppv-lite86 v0.2.10 + Downloaded libc v0.2.86 Compiling libc v0.2.86 Compiling getrandom v0.2.2 Compiling cfg-if v1.0.0 @@ -18,7 +24,7 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types = note: expected reference `&String` found reference `&{integer}` note: method defined here - --> /rustc/129f3b9964af4d4a709d1383930ade12dfe7c081/library/core/src/cmp.rs:840:8 + --> /rustc/eeb90cda1969383f56a2637cbd3037bdf598841c/library/core/src/cmp.rs:839:8 For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. error: could not compile `guessing_game` (bin "guessing_game") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt index 73ca9d62fb..85efb431ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt @@ -4,13 +4,15 @@ error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x` --> src/main.rs:4:5 | 2 | let x = 5; - | - - | | - | first assignment to `x` - | help: consider making this binding mutable: `mut x` + | - first assignment to `x` 3 | println!("The value of x is: {x}"); 4 | x = 6; | ^^^^^ cannot assign twice to immutable variable + | +help: consider making this binding mutable + | +2 | let mut x = 5; + | +++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0384`. error: could not compile `variables` (bin "variables") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt index dde05f4b3b..1eb76de43f 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt @@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ error[E0277]: cannot add `Option` to `i8` | = help: the trait `Add>` is not implemented for `i8` = help: the following other types implement trait `Add`: - <&'a i8 as Add> - <&i8 as Add<&i8>> - > - + `&'a i8` implements `Add` + `&i8` implements `Add<&i8>` + `i8` implements `Add<&i8>` + `i8` implements `Add` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `enums` (bin "enums") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt index 5232f90378..43acd14d63 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt @@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ error[E0004]: non-exhaustive patterns: `None` not covered | ^ pattern `None` not covered | note: `Option` defined here - --> /rustc/129f3b9964af4d4a709d1383930ade12dfe7c081/library/core/src/option.rs:571:1 - ::: /rustc/129f3b9964af4d4a709d1383930ade12dfe7c081/library/core/src/option.rs:575:5 + --> /rustc/eeb90cda1969383f56a2637cbd3037bdf598841c/library/core/src/option.rs:574:1 + ::: /rustc/eeb90cda1969383f56a2637cbd3037bdf598841c/library/core/src/option.rs:578:5 | = note: not covered = note: the matched value is of type `Option` diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt index dbc9bb13dc..f3c1641b24 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt @@ -9,6 +9,14 @@ error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Resu | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` | = help: the trait `FromResidual>` is not implemented for `()` +help: consider adding return type + | +3 ~ fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { +4 | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; +5 + +6 + Ok(()) +7 + } + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `error-handling` (bin "error-handling") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt index b04a1a36c2..fbc00b5dfc 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Locking 1 package to latest compatible version - Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/carolnichols/rust/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04) + Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04) Compiling closure-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/closure-example) Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/closure-example` diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt index 1fddf5a982..695ee4bee3 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Locking 1 package to latest compatible version - Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/carolnichols/rust/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05) + Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05) Compiling closure-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/closure-example) Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/closure-example` diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt index 3509e8ec62..8501007f05 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference in the `impl` method and | 2 ~ fn send(&mut self, msg: &str); 3 | } - ... +... 56 | impl Messenger for MockMessenger { 57 ~ fn send(&mut self, message: &str) { | diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt index cb4167a5b8..cc96baed1d 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ note: required because it's used within this closure 11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { | ^^^^^^^ note: required by a bound in `spawn` - --> /rustc/129f3b9964af4d4a709d1383930ade12dfe7c081/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:691:1 + --> /rustc/eeb90cda1969383f56a2637cbd3037bdf598841c/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:688:1 For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `shared-state` (bin "shared-state") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1109eb84f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1793 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f8e641d6d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // ANCHOR: futures + let tx_fut = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + // ANCHOR_END: futures + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 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"../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d5a2e56e34 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + 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for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..349041d3eb --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b928fb6020 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +$ diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1888a53568 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock 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for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>>> = + vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff 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`trpl` as a dependency of package `async_await v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18)` + +Caused by: + failed to load source for dependency `trpl` + +Caused by: + Unable to update /Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/packages/trpl + +Caused by: + failed to read `/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml` + +Caused by: + No such file or directory (os error 2) diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..41820fc8a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + // ANCHOR: here + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let 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for mdbook test + +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); + }; + + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); + }; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::race(a, b).await; + }); +} + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2e0f3ebedb --- /dev/null +++ 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Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2e0f3ebedb --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.21.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb" +dependencies = [ + "gimli", +] + +[[package]] +name = "adler" +version = "1.0.2" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f26201604c87b1e01bd3d98f8d5d9a8fcbb815e8cedb41ffccbeb4bf593a35fe" + 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d2edded63d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: declaration +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // Here is where our implementation will go! +} +// ANCHOR_END: declaration diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 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mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = get_messages(); + + while let Some(message) = messages.next().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for message in messages { + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..36905af42a --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.22.0" +source = 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b4dda21d52 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +// ANCHOR: messages +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: intervals +fn get_intervals() 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bc10dd48c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals(); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = merged.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in 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= "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..72da09d75f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 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+ let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: throttle + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: errors +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: errors diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..36905af42a --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e094f067f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f1f3d4b0c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, thread, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: threads +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is 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their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1a508bf582 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +extern crate trpl; // for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + thread::spawn(move || { + for i in 1..11 { + tx.send(i).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } + }); + + trpl::run(async { + while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d30b928a6c --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..67729afc80 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..10a18bc488 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..09a980c04d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_>, + ) -> Poll>; +} + +// ANCHOR: here +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt index bc736bd689..3a23426392 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt @@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object 1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at compile-time | -help: return an `impl Trait` instead of a `dyn Trait`, if all returned values are the same type +help: consider returning an `impl Trait` instead of a `dyn Trait` | 1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { | ~~~~ -help: box the return type, and wrap all of the returned values in `Box::new` +help: alternatively, box the return type, and wrap all of the returned values in `Box::new` | 1 ~ fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { 2 ~ Box::new(|x| x + 1) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs index f139846c6d..1eff2eef3a 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs index c72d4a9c67..17c8401d4d 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs index d4b78b640e..437d9b626e 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs index 5523a42d7c..843d846766 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ fn main() { // --snip-- fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs index a14b7d538c..e19467b83b 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs index ffc51e803e..0f9356ab02 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs index 5a18b45c02..0679ec6002 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs index 1181357b0e..075a0d9de6 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs index 21b9a80f10..bde3e29d10 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt index 84ebe928b0..554bfd8591 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable refer | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type `JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait | note: `JoinHandle::::join` takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves `worker.thread` - --> /rustc/129f3b9964af4d4a709d1383930ade12dfe7c081/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1718:17 + --> /rustc/eeb90cda1969383f56a2637cbd3037bdf598841c/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1778:17 For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs index 86e8d9e78c..ee0f1efe74 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs index f7b42167f9..e68f72c700 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt index 1ffe5206b1..6867dcbcaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current scop | ^^^^ method not found in `Option>` | note: the method `join` exists on the type `JoinHandle<()>` - --> /rustc/129f3b9964af4d4a709d1383930ade12dfe7c081/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1718:5 + --> /rustc/eeb90cda1969383f56a2637cbd3037bdf598841c/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1778:5 help: consider using `Option::expect` to unwrap the `JoinHandle<()>` value, panicking if the value is an `Option::None` | 52 | worker.thread.expect("REASON").join().unwrap(); diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/nostarch/chapter07.md b/nostarch/chapter07.md index 9fef53de79..0a7a407935 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter07.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter07.md @@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in Chapter 2 provides functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they -use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library". +use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library”. The *crate root* is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in the @@ -139,37 +139,35 @@ in the compiler, and how most developers organize their code. We’ll be going through examples of each of these rules throughout this chapter, but this is a great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work. -- **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first +* **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first looks in the crate root file (usually *src/lib.rs* for a library crate or *src/main.rs* for a binary crate) for code to compile. -- **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; -say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look -for the module’s code in these places: - - Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod - garden` - - In the file *src/garden.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* -- **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can +* **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; + say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look + for the module’s code in these places: + * Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod garden` + * In the file *src/garden.rs* + * In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* +* **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can declare submodules. For example, you might declare `mod vegetables;` in *src/garden.rs*. The compiler will look for the submodule’s code within the directory named for the parent module in these places: - - Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead + * Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead of the semicolon - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* -- **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can + * In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* + * In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* +* **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can refer to code in that module from anywhere else in that same crate, as long as the privacy rules allow, using the path to the code. For example, an `Asparagus` type in the garden vegetables module would be found at `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`. -- **Private vs. public**: Code within a module is private from its parent +* **Private vs. public**: Code within a module is private from its parent modules by default. To make a module public, declare it with `pub mod` instead of `mod`. To make items within a public module public as well, use `pub` before their declarations. -- **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to +* **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to items to reduce repetition of long paths. In any scope that can refer to - `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use - crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to + `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to write `Asparagus` to make use of that type in the scope. Here, we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. @@ -198,7 +196,7 @@ pub mod garden; fn main() { let plant = Asparagus {}; - println!("I'm growing {:?}!", plant); + println!("I'm growing {plant:?}!"); } ``` @@ -243,8 +241,7 @@ chefs and cooks work in the kitchen, dishwashers clean up, and managers do administrative work. To structure our crate in this way, we can organize its functions into nested -modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new -restaurant --lib`. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to +modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new restaurant --lib`. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to define some modules and function signatures; this code is the front of house section. @@ -566,7 +563,7 @@ and `fn add_to_waitlist` lets us call the function from `eat_at_restaurant` Now the code will compile! To see why adding the `pub` keyword lets us use -these paths in `add_to_waitlist` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look +these paths in `eat_at_restaurant` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look at the absolute and the relative paths. In the absolute path, we start with `crate`, the root of our crate’s module @@ -594,26 +591,27 @@ changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on your crate. These considerations are out of the scope of this book; if you’re interested in this topic, see The Rust API Guidelines at *https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines/*. -> #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library -> -> We mentioned that a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate -> root as well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have -> the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of -> containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the -> binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. -> This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the -> package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. -> -> The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can -> be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. -> The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely -> external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. -> This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a -> client! -> -> In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational -> practice with a command-line program that will contain both a binary crate -> and a library crate. + > + > #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library + > + > We mentioned that a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate + > root as well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have + > the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of + > containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the + > binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. + > This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the + > package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. + > + > The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can + > be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. + > The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely + > external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. + > This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a + > client! + > + > In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational + > practice with a command-line program that will contain both a binary crate + > and a library crate. ### Starting Relative Paths with `super` @@ -856,8 +854,7 @@ the shortcut in the parent module with `super::hosting` within the child ### Creating Idiomatic `use` Paths -In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use -crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in +In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in `eat_at_restaurant`, rather than specifying the `use` path all the way out to the `add_to_waitlist` function to achieve the same result, as in Listing 7-13. @@ -1002,8 +999,7 @@ from a new scope with `pub use` Before this change, external code would have to call the `add_to_waitlist` function by using the path `restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist()`, which also would have -required the `front_of_house` module to be marked as `pub`. Now that this `pub -use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code +required the `front_of_house` module to be marked as `pub`. Now that this `pub use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code can use the path `restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist()` instead. Re-exporting is useful when the internal structure of your code is different @@ -1246,29 +1242,30 @@ root, and not declared as a child of the `front_of_house` module. The compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code mean the directories and files more closely match the module tree. -> ### Alternate File Paths -> -> So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, -> but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named -> `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the -> module’s code in: -> -> * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> -> For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the -> compiler will look for the module’s code in: -> -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> -> If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. -> Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is -> allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project. -> -> The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your -> project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing -> when you have them open in your editor at the same time. + > + > ### Alternate File Paths + > + > So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, + > but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named + > `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the + > module’s code in: + > + > * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) + > * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) + > + > For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the + > compiler will look for the module’s code in: + > + > * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) + > * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) + > + > If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. + > Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is + > allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project. + > + > The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your + > project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing + > when you have them open in your editor at the same time. We’ve moved each module’s code to a separate file, and the module tree remains the same. The function calls in `eat_at_restaurant` will work without any diff --git a/nostarch/chapter12.md b/nostarch/chapter12.md index 86e9861731..3ce134974b 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter12.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter12.md @@ -44,7 +44,8 @@ Our `grep` project will combine a number of concepts you’ve learned so far: * Writing tests (Chapter 11) We’ll also briefly introduce closures, iterators, and trait objects, which -Chapter 13 and Chapter 17 will cover in detail. +Chapter 13 and Chapter 17 will +cover in detail. ## Accepting Command Line Arguments @@ -69,24 +70,24 @@ $ cargo run -- searchstring example-filename.txt ``` Right now, the program generated by `cargo new` cannot process arguments we -give it. Some existing libraries on *https://crates.io* can help with writing a -program that accepts command line arguments, but because you’re just learning -this concept, let’s implement this capability ourselves. +give it. Some existing libraries on crates.io at *https://crates.io/* can help +with writing a program that accepts command line arguments, but because you’re +just learning this concept, let’s implement this capability ourselves. ### Reading the Argument Values To enable `minigrep` to read the values of command line arguments we pass to it, we’ll need the `std::env::args` function provided in Rust’s standard library. This function returns an iterator of the command line arguments passed -to `minigrep`. We’ll cover iterators fully in Chapter 13. For now, you only -need to know two details about iterators: iterators produce a series of values, -and we can call the `collect` method on an iterator to turn it into a -collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements the iterator -produces. +to `minigrep`. We’ll cover iterators fully in Chapter 13. For now, you only need to know two details about iterators: iterators +produce a series of values, and we can call the `collect` method on an iterator +to turn it into a collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements +the iterator produces. The code in Listing 12-1 allows your `minigrep` program to read any command line arguments passed to it, and then collect the values into a vector. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -98,27 +99,27 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into a vector and printing -them +Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into a vector and printing them First we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we can use its `args` function. Notice that the `std::env::args` function is -nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in Chapter 7, in cases where -the desired function is nested in more than one module, we’ve chosen to bring -the parent module into scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can -easily use other functions from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than -adding `use std::env::args` and then calling the function with just `args`, -because `args` might easily be mistaken for a function that’s defined in the -current module. - -> ### The args Function and Invalid Unicode -> -> Note that `std::env::args` will panic if any argument contains invalid -Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid Unicode, -use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator that -produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to use -`std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per -platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. +nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in Chapter +7, in cases where the desired function is +nested in more than one module, we’ve chosen to bring the parent module into +scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can easily use other functions +from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than adding `use std::env::args` and +then calling the function with just `args`, because `args` might easily be +mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. + + > + > ### The `args` Function and Invalid Unicode + > + > Note that `std::env::args` will panic if any argument contains invalid + > Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid + > Unicode, use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator + > that produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to + > use `std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per + > platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. On the first line of `main`, we call `env::args`, and we immediately use `collect` to turn the iterator into a vector containing all the values produced @@ -133,13 +134,20 @@ first with no arguments and then with two arguments: ``` $ cargo run ---snip-- -[src/main.rs:5] args = [ + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running `target/debug/minigrep` +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ "target/debug/minigrep", ] +``` + +``` $ cargo run -- needle haystack ---snip-- -[src/main.rs:5] args = [ + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.57s + Running `target/debug/minigrep needle haystack` +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ "target/debug/minigrep", "needle", "haystack", @@ -161,6 +169,7 @@ arguments. Now we need to save the values of the two arguments in variables so we can use the values throughout the rest of the program. We do that in Listing 12-2. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -172,13 +181,12 @@ fn main() { let query = &args[1]; let file_path = &args[2]; - println!("Searching for {}", query); - println!("In file {}", file_path); + println!("Searching for {query}"); + println!("In file {file_path}"); } ``` -Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query argument and file path -argument +Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query argument and file path argument As we saw when we printed the vector, the program’s name takes up the first value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index 1. The @@ -194,7 +202,7 @@ and `sample.txt`: ``` $ cargo run -- test sample.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep test sample.txt` Searching for test In file sample.txt @@ -215,6 +223,7 @@ has an Emily Dickinson poem that will work well! Create a file called *poem.txt* at the root level of your project, and enter the poem “I’m Nobody! Who are you?” + Filename: poem.txt ``` @@ -234,34 +243,36 @@ Listing 12-3: A poem by Emily Dickinson makes a good test case. With the text in place, edit *src/main.rs* and add code to read the file, as shown in Listing 12-4. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` use std::env; -1 use std::fs; +use std::fs; fn main() { - --snip-- - println!("In file {}", file_path); + // --snip-- + println!("In file {file_path}"); - 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) + let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - 3 println!("With text:\n{contents}"); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } ``` Listing 12-4: Reading the contents of the file specified by the second argument First we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` -statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files [1]. +statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files. In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `file_path`, opens -that file, and returns an `std::io::Result` of the file’s contents [2]. +that file, and returns a value of type `std::io::Result` that contains +the file’s contents. After that, we again add a temporary `println!` statement that prints the value of `contents` after the file is read, so we can check that the program is -working so far [3]. +working so far. Let’s run this code with any string as the first command line argument (because we haven’t implemented the searching part yet) and the *poem.txt* file as the @@ -270,7 +281,7 @@ second argument: ``` $ cargo run -- the poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` Searching for the In file poem.txt @@ -284,6 +295,7 @@ How dreary to be somebody! How public, like a frog To tell your name the livelong day To an admiring bog! + ``` Great! The code read and then printed the contents of the file. But the code @@ -315,19 +327,18 @@ it will be to keep track of the purpose of each. It’s best to group the configuration variables into one structure to make their purpose clear. The third problem is that we’ve used `expect` to print an error message when -reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Should have been -able to read the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for +reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Should have been able to read the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for example, the file could be missing, or we might not have permission to open it. Right now, regardless of the situation, we’d print the same error message for everything, which wouldn’t give the user any information! -Fourth, we use `expect` repeatedly to handle different errors, and if the user -runs our program without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out -of bounds` error from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would -be best if all the error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers -had only one place to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to -change. Having all the error-handling code in one place will also ensure that -we’re printing messages that will be meaningful to our end users. +Fourth, we use `expect` to handle an error, and if the user runs our program +without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out of bounds` error +from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would be best if all the +error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers had only one place +to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to change. Having all the +error-handling code in one place will also ensure that we’re printing messages +that will be meaningful to our end users. Let’s address these four problems by refactoring our project. @@ -340,11 +351,11 @@ binary program when `main` starts getting large. This process has the following steps: * Split your program into a *main.rs* file and a *lib.rs* file and move your -program’s logic to *lib.rs*. + program’s logic to *lib.rs*. * As long as your command line parsing logic is small, it can remain in -*main.rs*. + *main.rs*. * When the command line parsing logic starts getting complicated, extract it -from *main.rs* and move it to *lib.rs*. + from *main.rs* and move it to *lib.rs*. The responsibilities that remain in the `main` function after this process should be limited to the following: @@ -365,9 +376,10 @@ it. Let’s rework our program by following this process. We’ll extract the functionality for parsing arguments into a function that `main` will call to prepare for moving the command line parsing logic to -src/lib.rs*. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new +*src/lib.rs*. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new function `parse_config`, which we’ll define in *src/main.rs* for the moment. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -376,7 +388,7 @@ fn main() { let (query, file_path) = parse_config(&args); - --snip-- + // --snip-- } fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> (&str, &str) { @@ -387,7 +399,7 @@ fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> (&str, &str) { } ``` -Listing 12-5: Extracting a `parse_config` function from `main` +Listing 12-5: Extracting a parse_config function from main We’re still collecting the command line arguments into a vector, but instead of assigning the argument value at index 1 to the variable `query` and the @@ -422,42 +434,42 @@ other and what their purpose is. Listing 12-6 shows the improvements to the `parse_config` function. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - 1 let config = parse_config(&args); + let config = parse_config(&args); - println!("Searching for {}", 2 config.query); - println!("In file {}", 3 config.file_path); + println!("Searching for {}", config.query); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(4 config.file_path) + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - --snip-- + // --snip-- } -5 struct Config { +struct Config { query: String, file_path: String, } -6 fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { - 7 let query = args[1].clone(); - 8 let file_path = args[2].clone(); +fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { + let query = args[1].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); Config { query, file_path } } ``` -Listing 12-6: Refactoring `parse_config` to return an instance of a `Config` -struct +Listing 12-6: Refactoring parse_config to return an instance of a Config struct We’ve added a struct named `Config` defined to have fields named `query` and -`file_path` [5]. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns -a `Config` value [6]. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return +`file_path`. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns a +`Config` value. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return string slices that reference `String` values in `args`, we now define `Config` to contain owned `String` values. The `args` variable in `main` is the owner of the argument values and is only letting the `parse_config` function borrow @@ -465,44 +477,45 @@ them, which means we’d violate Rust’s borrowing rules if `Config` tried to t ownership of the values in `args`. There are a number of ways we could manage the `String` data; the easiest, -though somewhat inefficient, route is to call the `clone` method on the values -[7] [8]. This will make a full copy of the data for the `Config` instance to -own, which takes more time and memory than storing a reference to the string -data. However, cloning the data also makes our code very straightforward -because we don’t have to manage the lifetimes of the references; in this -circumstance, giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile -trade-off. - -> ### The Trade-Offs of Using clone -> -> There’s a tendency among many Rustaceans to avoid using `clone` to fix -ownership problems because of its runtime cost. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn how -to use more efficient methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay -to copy a few strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these -copies only once and your file path and query string are very small. It’s -better to have a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to -hyperoptimize code on your first pass. As you become more experienced with -Rust, it’ll be easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, -it’s perfectly acceptable to call `clone`. +though somewhat inefficient, route is to call the `clone` method on the values. +This will make a full copy of the data for the `Config` instance to own, which +takes more time and memory than storing a reference to the string data. +However, cloning the data also makes our code very straightforward because we +don’t have to manage the lifetimes of the references; in this circumstance, +giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile trade-off. + + > + > ### The Trade-Offs of Using `clone` + > + > There’s a tendency among many Rustaceans to avoid using `clone` to fix + > ownership problems because of its runtime cost. In + > Chapter 13, you’ll learn how to use more efficient + > methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay to copy a few + > strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these copies only + > once and your file path and query string are very small. It’s better to have + > a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to hyperoptimize code + > on your first pass. As you become more experienced with Rust, it’ll be + > easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, it’s + > perfectly acceptable to call `clone`. We’ve updated `main` so it places the instance of `Config` returned by -`parse_config` into a variable named `config` [1], and we updated the code that +`parse_config` into a variable named `config`, and we updated the code that previously used the separate `query` and `file_path` variables so it now uses -the fields on the `Config` struct instead [2] [3] [4]. +the fields on the `Config` struct instead. Now our code more clearly conveys that `query` and `file_path` are related and that their purpose is to configure how the program will work. Any code that uses these values knows to find them in the `config` instance in the fields named for their purpose. -#### Creating a Constructor for Config +#### Creating a Constructor for `Config` So far, we’ve extracted the logic responsible for parsing the command line arguments from `main` and placed it in the `parse_config` function. Doing so helped us see that the `query` and `file_path` values were related, and that relationship should be conveyed in our code. We then added a `Config` struct to -name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return -the values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. +name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return the +values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. So now that the purpose of the `parse_config` function is to create a `Config` instance, we can change `parse_config` from a plain function to a function @@ -513,21 +526,22 @@ changing `parse_config` into a `new` function associated with `Config`, we’ll be able to create instances of `Config` by calling `Config::new`. Listing 12-7 shows the changes we need to make. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - 1 let config = Config::new(&args); + let config = Config::new(&args); - --snip-- + // --snip-- } ---snip-- +// --snip-- -2 impl Config { - 3 fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { +impl Config { + fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { let query = args[1].clone(); let file_path = args[2].clone(); @@ -536,12 +550,12 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-7: Changing `parse_config` into `Config::new` +Listing 12-7: Changing parse_config into Config::new We’ve updated `main` where we were calling `parse_config` to instead call -`Config::new` [1]. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` [3] and -moved it within an `impl` block [2], which associates the `new` function with -`Config`. Try compiling this code again to make sure it works. +`Config::new`. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` and moved it +within an `impl` block, which associates the `new` function with `Config`. Try +compiling this code again to make sure it works. ### Fixing the Error Handling @@ -553,12 +567,11 @@ without any arguments; it will look like this: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 1 but -the index is 1', src/main.rs:27:21 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:27:21: +index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1 +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` The line `index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1` is an error @@ -571,26 +584,27 @@ In Listing 12-8, we add a check in the `new` function that will verify that the slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and index 2. If the slice isn’t long enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` ---snip-- -fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { - if args.len() < 3 { - panic!("not enough arguments"); - } - --snip-- + // --snip-- + fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { + if args.len() < 3 { + panic!("not enough arguments"); + } + // --snip-- ``` Listing 12-8: Adding a check for the number of arguments -This code is similar to the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing 9-13, -where we called `panic!` when the `value` argument was out of the range of -valid values. Instead of checking for a range of values here, we’re checking -that the length of `args` is at least `3` and the rest of the function can -operate under the assumption that this condition has been met. If `args` has -fewer than three items, this condition will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` -macro to end the program immediately. +This code is similar to the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing +9-13, where we called `panic!` when the +`value` argument was out of the range of valid values. Instead of checking for +a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least +`3` and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this +condition has been met. If `args` has fewer than three items, this condition +will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. With these extra few lines of code in `new`, let’s run the program without any arguments again to see what the error looks like now: @@ -598,23 +612,26 @@ arguments again to see what the error looks like now: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'not enough arguments', -src/main.rs:26:13 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:26:13: +not enough arguments +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` This output is better: we now have a reasonable error message. However, we also have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps the technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best one to use here: a call to -`panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, as -discussed in Chapter 9. Instead, we’ll use the other technique you learned -about in Chapter 9—returning a `Result` that indicates either success or an -error. +`panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, +as discussed in Chapter 9. Instead, +we’ll use the other technique you learned about in Chapter 9—returning a +`Result` that indicates either success or an error. -#### Returning a Result Instead of Calling panic! + + + + +#### Returning a `Result` Instead of Calling `panic!` We can instead return a `Result` value that will contain a `Config` instance in the successful case and will describe the problem in the error case. We’re also @@ -622,14 +639,14 @@ going to change the function name from `new` to `build` because many programmers expect `new` functions to never fail. When `Config::build` is communicating to `main`, we can use the `Result` type to signal there was a problem. Then we can change `main` to convert an `Err` variant into a more -practical error for our users without the surrounding text about `thread -'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. +practical error for our users without the surrounding text about `thread 'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. Listing 12-9 shows the changes we need to make to the return value of the function we’re now calling `Config::build` and the body of the function needed to return a `Result`. Note that this won’t compile until we update `main` as well, which we’ll do in the next listing. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -647,10 +664,10 @@ impl Config { } ``` -Listing 12-9: Returning a `Result` from `Config::build` +Listing 12-9: Returning a Result from Config::build Our `build` function returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the success -case and an `&'static str` in the error case. Our error values will always be +case and a string literal in the error case. Our error values will always be string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. We’ve made two changes in the body of the function: instead of calling `panic!` @@ -662,7 +679,11 @@ Returning an `Err` value from `Config::build` allows the `main` function to handle the `Result` value returned from the `build` function and exit the process more cleanly in the error case. -#### Calling Config::build and Handling Errors + + + + +#### Calling `Config::build` and Handling Errors To handle the error case and print a user-friendly message, we need to update `main` to handle the `Result` being returned by `Config::build`, as shown in @@ -671,41 +692,42 @@ tool with a nonzero error code away from `panic!` and instead implement it by hand. A nonzero exit status is a convention to signal to the process that called our program that the program exited with an error state. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 use std::process; +use std::process; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - 2 let config = Config::build(&args).3 unwrap_or_else(|4 err| { - 5 println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); - 6 process::exit(1); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); + process::exit(1); }); - --snip-- + // --snip-- ``` -Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if building a `Config` fails +Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if building a Config fails In this listing, we’ve used a method we haven’t covered in detail yet: -`unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library -[2]. Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error +`unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library. +Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error handling. If the `Result` is an `Ok` value, this method’s behavior is similar to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value that `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the value is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is -an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else` -[3]. We’ll cover closures in more detail in Chapter 13. For now, you just need -to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of the `Err`, which in -this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` that we added in -Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that appears between the -vertical pipes [4]. The code in the closure can then use the `err` value when -it runs. +an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. +We’ll cover closures in more detail in Chapter 13. For +now, you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of +the `Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` +that we added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that +appears between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the +`err` value when it runs. We’ve added a new `use` line to bring `process` from the standard library into -scope [1]. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only -two lines: we print the `err` value [5] and then call `process::exit` [6]. The +scope. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only two +lines: we print the `err` value and then call `process::exit`. The `process::exit` function will stop the program immediately and return the number that was passed as the exit status code. This is similar to the `panic!`-based handling we used in Listing 12-8, but we no longer get all the @@ -714,32 +736,33 @@ extra output. Let’s try it: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/minigrep` Problem parsing arguments: not enough arguments ``` Great! This output is much friendlier for our users. -### Extracting Logic from main +### Extracting Logic from `main` Now that we’ve finished refactoring the configuration parsing, let’s turn to the program’s logic. As we stated in “Separation of Concerns for Binary -Projects” on page XX, we’ll extract a function named `run` that will hold all -the logic currently in the `main` function that isn’t involved with setting up -configuration or handling errors. When we’re done, `main` will be concise and -easy to verify by inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the -other logic. +Projects”, we’ll +extract a function named `run` that will hold all the logic currently in the +`main` function that isn’t involved with setting up configuration or handling +errors. When we’re done, `main` will be concise and easy to verify by +inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the other logic. Listing 12-11 shows the extracted `run` function. For now, we’re just making the small, incremental improvement of extracting the function. We’re still defining the function in *src/main.rs*. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- println!("Searching for {}", config.query); println!("In file {}", config.file_path); @@ -754,17 +777,16 @@ fn run(config: Config) { println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } ---snip-- +// --snip-- ``` -Listing 12-11: Extracting a `run` function containing the rest of the program -logic +Listing 12-11: Extracting a run function containing the rest of the program logic The `run` function now contains all the remaining logic from `main`, starting from reading the file. The `run` function takes the `Config` instance as an argument. -#### Returning Errors from the run Function +#### Returning Errors from the `run` Function With the remaining program logic separated into the `run` function, we can improve the error handling, as we did with `Config::build` in Listing 12-9. @@ -774,42 +796,45 @@ us further consolidate the logic around handling errors into `main` in a user-friendly way. Listing 12-12 shows the changes we need to make to the signature and body of `run`. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 use std::error::Error; +use std::error::Error; ---snip-- +// --snip-- -2 fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)3 ?; +fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; println!("With text:\n{contents}"); - 4 Ok(()) + Ok(()) } ``` -Listing 12-12: Changing the `run` function to return `Result` +Listing 12-12: Changing the run function to return Result We’ve made three significant changes here. First, we changed the return type of -the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>` [2]. This function -previously returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned -in the `Ok` case. +the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>`. This function previously +returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned in the +`Ok` case. For the error type, we used the *trait object* `Box` (and we’ve -brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top [1]). -We’ll cover trait objects in Chapter 17. For now, just know that `Box` means the function will return a type that implements the `Error` -trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type the return value will -be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that may be of different -types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short for *dynamic*. - -Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator [3], as -we talked about in Chapter 9. Rather than `panic!` on an error, `?` will return -the error value from the current function for the caller to handle. - -Third, the `run` function now returns an `Ok` value in the success case [4]. +brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top). +We’ll cover trait objects in Chapter 17. For now, just +know that `Box` means the function will return a type that +implements the `Error` trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type +the return value will be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that +may be of different types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short +for *dynamic*. + +Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator, as we +talked about in Chapter 9. Rather than +`panic!` on an error, `?` will return the error value from the current function +for the caller to handle. + +Third, the `run` function now returns an `Ok` value in the success case. We’ve declared the `run` function’s success type as `()` in the signature, which means we need to wrap the unit type value in the `Ok` value. This `Ok(())` syntax might look a bit strange at first, but using `()` like this is @@ -819,15 +844,37 @@ only; it doesn’t return a value we need. When you run this code, it will compile but will display a warning: ``` +$ cargo run -- the poem.txt + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) warning: unused `Result` that must be used --> src/main.rs:19:5 | 19 | run(config); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ | + = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be handled = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default - = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be -handled +help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value + | +19 | let _ = run(config); + | +++++++ + +warning: `minigrep` (bin "minigrep") generated 1 warning + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.71s + Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` +Searching for the +In file poem.txt +With text: +I'm nobody! Who are you? +Are you nobody, too? +Then there's a pair of us - don't tell! +They'd banish us, you know. + +How dreary to be somebody! +How public, like a frog +To tell your name the livelong day +To an admiring bog! + ``` Rust tells us that our code ignored the `Result` value and the `Result` value @@ -835,7 +882,7 @@ might indicate that an error occurred. But we’re not checking to see whether o not there was an error, and the compiler reminds us that we probably meant to have some error-handling code here! Let’s rectify that problem now. -#### Handling Errors Returned from run in main +#### Handling Errors Returned from `run` in `main` We’ll check for errors and handle them using a technique similar to one we used with `Config::build` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: @@ -844,7 +891,7 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- println!("Searching for {}", config.query); println!("In file {}", config.file_path); @@ -884,6 +931,7 @@ The contents of *src/lib.rs* should have the signatures shown in Listing 12-13 (we’ve omitted the bodies of the functions for brevity). Note that this won’t compile until we modify *src/main.rs* in Listing 12-14. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -896,19 +944,17 @@ pub struct Config { } impl Config { - pub fn build( - args: &[String], - ) -> Result { - --snip-- + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { + // --snip-- } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - --snip-- + // --snip-- } ``` -Listing 12-13: Moving `Config` and `run` into *src/lib.rs* +Listing 12-13: Moving Config and run into src/lib.rs We’ve made liberal use of the `pub` keyword: on `Config`, on its fields and its `build` method, and on the `run` function. We now have a library crate that has @@ -917,6 +963,7 @@ a public API we can test! Now we need to bring the code we moved to *src/lib.rs* into the scope of the binary crate in *src/main.rs*, as shown in Listing 12-14. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -926,14 +973,14 @@ use std::process; use minigrep::Config; fn main() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - --snip-- + // --snip-- } } ``` -Listing 12-14: Using the `minigrep` library crate in *src/main.rs* +Listing 12-14: Using the minigrep library crate in src/main.rs We add a `use minigrep::Config` line to bring the `Config` type from the library crate into the binary crate’s scope, and we prefix the `run` function @@ -960,10 +1007,10 @@ In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program using the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: 1. Write a test that fails and run it to make sure it fails for the reason you -expect. + expect. 1. Write or modify just enough code to make the new test pass. 1. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests continue -to pass. + to pass. 1. Repeat from step 1! Though it’s just one of many ways to write software, TDD can help drive code @@ -980,10 +1027,11 @@ lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called Because we don’t need them anymore, let’s remove the `println!` statements from *src/lib.rs* and *src/main.rs* that we used to check the program’s behavior. Then, in *src/lib.rs*, we’ll add a `tests` module with a test function, as we -did in Chapter 11. The test function specifies the behavior we want the -`search` function to have: it will take a query and the text to search, and it -will return only the lines from the text that contain the query. Listing 12-15 -shows this test, which won’t compile yet. +did in Chapter 11. The test function specifies +the behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and +the text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that +contain the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1000,15 +1048,12 @@ Rust: safe, fast, productive. Pick three."; - assert_eq!( - vec!["safe, fast, productive."], - search(query, contents) - ); + assert_eq!(vec!["safe, fast, productive."], search(query, contents)); } } ``` -Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the `search` function we wish we had +Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the search function we wish we had This test searches for the string `"duct"`. The text we’re searching is three lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (note that the backslash after the @@ -1021,29 +1066,26 @@ even compile: the `search` function doesn’t exist yet! In accordance with TDD principles, we’ll add just enough code to get the test to compile and run by adding a definition of the `search` function that always returns an empty vector, as shown in Listing 12-16. Then the test should compile and fail -because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, -fast, productive."`. +because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, fast, productive."` + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { vec![] } ``` -Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the `search` function so our test will -compile +Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the search function so our test will compile Notice that we need to define an explicit lifetime `'a` in the signature of `search` and use that lifetime with the `contents` argument and the return -value. Recall in Chapter 10 that the lifetime parameters specify which argument -lifetime is connected to the lifetime of the return value. In this case, we -indicate that the returned vector should contain string slices that reference -slices of the argument `contents` (rather than the argument `query`). +value. Recall in Chapter 10 that the lifetime +parameters specify which argument lifetime is connected to the lifetime of the +return value. In this case, we indicate that the returned vector should contain +string slices that reference slices of the argument `contents` (rather than the +argument `query`). In other words, we tell Rust that the data returned by the `search` function will live as long as the data passed into the `search` function in the @@ -1056,25 +1098,22 @@ If we forget the lifetime annotations and try to compile this function, we’ll get this error: ``` +$ cargo build + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier - --> src/lib.rs:31:10 + --> src/lib.rs:28:51 | -29 | query: &str, - | ---- -30 | contents: &str, - | ---- -31 | ) -> Vec<&str> { - | ^ expected named lifetime parameter +28 | pub fn search(query: &str, contents: &str) -> Vec<&str> { + | ---- ---- ^ expected named lifetime parameter | - = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but the -signature does not say whether it is borrowed from `query` or `contents` + = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but the signature does not say whether it is borrowed from `query` or `contents` help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | -28 ~ pub fn search<'a>( -29 ~ query: &'a str, -30 ~ contents: &'a str, -31 ~ ) -> Vec<&'a str> { - | +28 | pub fn search<'a>(query: &'a str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { + | ++++ ++ ++ ++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. +error: could not compile `minigrep` (lib) due to 1 previous error ``` Rust can’t possibly know which of the two arguments we need, so we need to tell @@ -1085,15 +1124,16 @@ syntax. Other programming languages don’t require you to connect arguments to return values in the signature, but this practice will get easier over time. You might -want to compare this example with the examples in “Validating References with -Lifetimes” on page XX. +want to compare this example with the examples in the “Validating References +with Lifetimes” section +in Chapter 10. Now let’s run the test: ``` $ cargo test Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 1 test @@ -1102,19 +1142,19 @@ test tests::one_result ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::one_result stdout ---- -thread 'tests::one_result' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `["safe, fast, productive."]`, - right: `[]`', src/lib.rs:47:9 +thread 'tests::one_result' panicked at src/lib.rs:44:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: ["safe, fast, productive."] + right: [] note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace failures: tests::one_result -test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; -finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Great, the test fails, exactly as we expected. Let’s get the test to pass! @@ -1132,31 +1172,29 @@ that and implement `search`, our program needs to follow these steps: Let’s work through each step, starting with iterating through lines. -#### Iterating Through Lines with the lines Method +#### Iterating Through Lines with the `lines` Method Rust has a helpful method to handle line-by-line iteration of strings, conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note that this won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { for line in contents.lines() { // do something with line } } ``` -Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in `contents` +Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in contents The `lines` method returns an iterator. We’ll talk about iterators in depth in -Chapter 13, but recall that you saw this way of using an iterator in Listing -3-5, where we used a `for` loop with an iterator to run some code on each item -in a collection. +Chapter 13, but recall that you saw this way +of using an iterator in Listing 3-5, where we used a +`for` loop with an iterator to run some code on each item in a collection. #### Searching Each Line for the Query @@ -1165,13 +1203,11 @@ Fortunately, strings have a helpful method named `contains` that does this for us! Add a call to the `contains` method in the `search` function, as shown in Listing 12-18. Note that this still won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { for line in contents.lines() { if line.contains(query) { // do something with line @@ -1180,8 +1216,7 @@ pub fn search<'a>( } ``` -Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the line contains the string -in `query` +Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the line contains the string in query At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get the code to compile, we need to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function @@ -1194,13 +1229,11 @@ to return. For that, we can make a mutable vector before the `for` loop and call the `push` method to store a `line` in the vector. After the `for` loop, we return the vector, as shown in Listing 12-19. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { let mut results = Vec::new(); for line in contents.lines() { @@ -1220,12 +1253,27 @@ and our test should pass. Let’s run the test: ``` $ cargo test ---snip-- + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.22s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + running 1 test test tests::one_result ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests minigrep + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Our test passed, so we know it works! @@ -1234,10 +1282,10 @@ At this point, we could consider opportunities for refactoring the implementation of the search function while keeping the tests passing to maintain the same functionality. The code in the search function isn’t too bad, but it doesn’t take advantage of some useful features of iterators. We’ll -return to this example in Chapter 13, where we’ll explore iterators in detail, -and look at how to improve it. +return to this example in Chapter 13, where +we’ll explore iterators in detail, and look at how to improve it. -#### Using the search Function in the run Function +#### Using the `search` Function in the `run` Function Now that the `search` function is working and tested, we need to call `search` from our `run` function. We need to pass the `config.query` value and the @@ -1266,7 +1314,7 @@ should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem: *frog*. ``` $ cargo run -- frog poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s Running `target/debug/minigrep frog poem.txt` How public, like a frog ``` @@ -1275,7 +1323,8 @@ Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like *body*: ``` $ cargo run -- body poem.txt - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep body poem.txt` I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody, too? @@ -1287,7 +1336,8 @@ word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as *monomorphization*: ``` $ cargo run -- monomorphization poem.txt - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep monomorphization poem.txt` ``` @@ -1308,7 +1358,7 @@ users enter it each time they want it to apply, but by instead making it an environment variable, we allow our users to set the environment variable once and have all their searches be case insensitive in that terminal session. -### Writing a Failing Test for the Case-Insensitive search Function +### Writing a Failing Test for the Case-Insensitive `search` Function We first add a new `search_case_insensitive` function that will be called when the environment variable has a value. We’ll continue to follow the TDD process, @@ -1317,6 +1367,7 @@ the new `search_case_insensitive` function and rename our old test from `one_result` to `case_sensitive` to clarify the differences between the two tests, as shown in Listing 12-20. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1333,10 +1384,7 @@ safe, fast, productive. Pick three. Duct tape."; - assert_eq!( - vec!["safe, fast, productive."], - search(query, contents) - ); + assert_eq!(vec!["safe, fast, productive."], search(query, contents)); } #[test] @@ -1356,8 +1404,7 @@ Trust me."; } ``` -Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the case-insensitive function -we’re about to add +Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the case-insensitive function we’re about to add Note that we’ve edited the old test’s `contents` too. We’ve added a new line with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital *D* that shouldn’t match the query @@ -1375,13 +1422,14 @@ the `search_case_insensitive` function. Feel free to add a skeleton implementation that always returns an empty vector, similar to the way we did for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. -### Implementing the search_case_insensitive Function +### Implementing the `search_case_insensitive` Function The `search_case_insensitive` function, shown in Listing 12-21, will be almost the same as the `search` function. The only difference is that we’ll lowercase the `query` and each `line` so that whatever the case of the input arguments, they’ll be the same case when we check whether the line contains the query. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1389,11 +1437,11 @@ pub fn search_case_insensitive<'a>( query: &str, contents: &'a str, ) -> Vec<&'a str> { - 1 let query = query.to_lowercase(); + let query = query.to_lowercase(); let mut results = Vec::new(); for line in contents.lines() { - if 2 line.to_lowercase().contains(3 &query) { + if line.to_lowercase().contains(&query) { results.push(line); } } @@ -1402,11 +1450,10 @@ pub fn search_case_insensitive<'a>( } ``` -Listing 12-21: Defining the `search_case_insensitive` function to lowercase the -query and the line before comparing them +Listing 12-21: Defining the search_case_insensitive function to lowercase the query and the line before comparing them First we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with -the same name [1]. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so that no +the same name. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so that no matter whether the user’s query is `"rust"`, `"RUST"`, `"Rust"`, or `"rUsT"`, we’ll treat the query as if it were `"rust"` and be insensitive to the case. While `to_lowercase` will handle basic Unicode, it won’t be 100% accurate. If @@ -1419,22 +1466,39 @@ Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice because calling query is `"rUsT"`, as an example: that string slice doesn’t contain a lowercase `u` or `t` for us to use, so we have to allocate a new `String` containing `"rust"`. When we pass `query` as an argument to the `contains` method now, we -need to add an ampersand [3] because the signature of `contains` is defined to -take a string slice. +need to add an ampersand because the signature of `contains` is defined to take +a string slice. Next, we add a call to `to_lowercase` on each `line` to lowercase all -characters [2]. Now that we’ve converted `line` and `query` to lowercase, we’ll +characters. Now that we’ve converted `line` and `query` to lowercase, we’ll find matches no matter what the case of the query is. Let’s see if this implementation passes the tests: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.33s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + running 2 tests test tests::case_insensitive ... ok test tests::case_sensitive ... ok -test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests minigrep + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Great! They passed. Now, let’s call the new `search_case_insensitive` function @@ -1458,6 +1522,7 @@ function to check the `ignore_case` field’s value and use that to decide whether to call the `search` function or the `search_case_insensitive` function, as shown in Listing 12-22. This still won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1478,8 +1543,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { } ``` -Listing 12-22: Calling either `search` or `search_case_insensitive` based on -the value in `config.ignore_case` +Listing 12-22: Calling either search or search_case_insensitive based on the value in config.ignore_case Finally, we need to check for the environment variable. The functions for working with environment variables are in the `env` module in the standard @@ -1488,16 +1552,15 @@ we’ll use the `var` function from the `env` module to check to see if any valu has been set for an environment variable named `IGNORE_CASE`, as shown in Listing 12-23. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` use std::env; ---snip-- +// --snip-- impl Config { - pub fn build( - args: &[String] - ) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } @@ -1516,8 +1579,7 @@ impl Config { } ``` -Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment variable named -`IGNORE_CASE` +Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment variable named IGNORE_CASE Here, we create a new variable, `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the `env::var` function and pass it the name of the `IGNORE_CASE` environment @@ -1545,14 +1607,14 @@ the word *to* in all lowercase: ``` $ cargo run -- to poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep to poem.txt` Are you nobody, too? How dreary to be somebody! ``` Looks like that still works! Now let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` set -to `1` but with the same query `to`: +to `1` but with the same query *to*: ``` $ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run -- to poem.txt @@ -1574,6 +1636,12 @@ PS> Remove-Item Env:IGNORE_CASE We should get lines that contain *to* that might have uppercase letters: + + ``` Are you nobody, too? How dreary to be somebody! @@ -1653,6 +1721,7 @@ the `eprintln!` macro that prints to the standard error stream, so let’s chang the two places we were calling `println!` to print errors to use `eprintln!` instead. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -1671,8 +1740,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error instead of standard -output using `eprintln!` +Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error instead of standard output using eprintln! Let’s now run the program again in the same way, without any arguments and redirecting standard output with `>`: @@ -1717,4 +1785,3 @@ well tested. Next, we’ll explore some Rust features that were influenced by functional languages: closures and iterators. - diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock index dba6f20985..c61da8a7f4 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock @@ -362,6 +362,21 @@ version = "0.5.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" checksum = "2304e00983f87ffb38b55b444b5e3b60a884b5d30c0fca7d82fe33449bbe55ea" +[[package]] +name = "html_parser" +version = "0.7.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f6f56db07b6612644f6f7719f8ef944f75fff9d6378fdf3d316fd32194184abd" +dependencies = [ + "doc-comment", + "pest", + "pest_derive", + "serde", + "serde_derive", + "serde_json", + "thiserror", +] + [[package]] name = "humantime" version = "2.1.0" @@ -482,13 +497,13 @@ version = "0.1.0" dependencies = [ "assert_cmd", "clap", + "html_parser", "mdbook", "pulldown-cmark", "pulldown-cmark-to-cmark", "serde_json", "thiserror", "toml 0.8.13", - "xmlparser", ] [[package]] @@ -1162,9 +1177,3 @@ checksum = "c3c52e9c97a68071b23e836c9380edae937f17b9c4667bd021973efc689f618d" dependencies = [ "memchr", ] - -[[package]] -name = "xmlparser" -version = "0.13.6" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "66fee0b777b0f5ac1c69bb06d361268faafa61cd4682ae064a171c16c433e9e4" diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml index 4cf009b3f2..20bfe347db 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml @@ -7,13 +7,13 @@ edition = "2021" [dependencies] clap = { version = "4", features = ["derive"] } +html_parser = "0.7.0" mdbook = { version = "0.4", default-features = false } # only need the library pulldown-cmark = { version = "0.10", features = ["simd"] } pulldown-cmark-to-cmark = "13" serde_json = "1" thiserror = "1.0.60" toml = "0.8.12" -xmlparser = "0.13.6" [dev-dependencies] assert_cmd = "2" diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs index 59d338fe56..619cafdf38 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs @@ -1,3 +1,4 @@ +use html_parser::Dom; use mdbook::{ book::Book, errors::Result, @@ -7,7 +8,6 @@ use mdbook::{ }; use pulldown_cmark::{html, Event}; use pulldown_cmark_to_cmark::cmark; -use xmlparser::{Token, Tokenizer}; /// A preprocessor for rendering listings more elegantly. /// @@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ impl Preprocessor for TrplListing { } fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { - renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" } } @@ -139,104 +139,29 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for Mode { } fn rewrite_listing(src: &str, mode: Mode) -> Result { - let parser = new_cmark_parser(src, true); - - struct State<'e> { - current_listing: Option, - events: Vec, String>>, - } - - let final_state = parser.fold( - State { - current_listing: None, + let final_state = new_cmark_parser(src, true).try_fold( + ListingState { + current: None, events: vec![], }, |mut state, ev| { match ev { Event::Html(tag) => { if tag.starts_with(" { - match local.as_str() { - "number" => builder - .with_number(value.as_str()), - "caption" => builder - .with_caption(value.as_str()), - "file-name" => builder - .with_file_name(value.as_str()), - _ => builder, // TODO: error on extra attrs? - } - } - _ => builder, - } - }) - .build(); - - match listing_result { - Ok(listing) => { - let opening_event = match mode { - Mode::Default => { - let opening_html = - listing.opening_html(); - Event::Html(opening_html.into()) - } - Mode::Simple => { - let opening_text = - listing.opening_text(); - Event::Text(opening_text.into()) - } - }; - - state.current_listing = Some(listing); - state.events.push(Ok(opening_event)); - } - Err(reason) => state.events.push(Err(reason)), - } + state.open_listing(tag, mode)?; } else if tag.starts_with("") { - let trailing = if !tag.ends_with('>') { - tag.replace("", "") - } else { - String::from("") - }; - - match state.current_listing { - Some(listing) => { - let closing_event = match mode { - Mode::Default => { - let closing_html = - listing.closing_html(&trailing); - Event::Html(closing_html.into()) - } - Mode::Simple => { - let closing_text = - listing.closing_text(&trailing); - Event::Text(closing_text.into()) - } - }; - - state.current_listing = None; - state.events.push(Ok(closing_event)); - } - None => state.events.push(Err(String::from( - "Closing `` without opening tag.", - ))), - } + state.close_listing(tag, mode); } else { state.events.push(Ok(Event::Html(tag))); } } ev => state.events.push(Ok(ev)), }; - state + Ok::, String>(state) }, - ); + )?; - if final_state.current_listing.is_some() { + if final_state.current.is_some() { return Err("Unclosed listing".into()); } @@ -257,10 +182,107 @@ fn rewrite_listing(src: &str, mode: Mode) -> Result { Ok(buf) } +struct ListingState<'e> { + current: Option, + events: Vec, String>>, +} + +impl<'e> ListingState<'e> { + fn open_listing( + &mut self, + tag: pulldown_cmark::CowStr<'_>, + mode: Mode, + ) -> Result<(), String> { + // We do not *keep* the version constructed here, just temporarily + // construct it so the HTML parser, which expects properly closed tags + // to parse it as a *tag* rather than a *weird text node*, which accept + // it and provide a useful view of it. + let to_parse = tag.to_owned().to_string() + ""; + let listing = Dom::parse(&to_parse) + .map_err(|e| e.to_string())? + .children + .into_iter() + .filter_map(|node| match node { + html_parser::Node::Element(element) => Some(element.attributes), + html_parser::Node::Text(_) | html_parser::Node::Comment(_) => { + None + } + }) + .flatten() + .try_fold(ListingBuilder::new(), |builder, (key, maybe_value)| { + match (key.as_str(), maybe_value) { + ("number", Some(value)) => Ok(builder.with_number(value)), + ("number", None) => { + Err(String::from("number attribute without value")) + } + ("caption", Some(value)) => Ok(builder.with_caption(value)), + ("caption", None) => { + Err(String::from("caption attribute without value")) + } + ("file-name", Some(value)) => { + Ok(builder.with_file_name(value)) + } + ("file-name", None) => { + Err(String::from("file-name attribute without value")) + } + + _ => Ok(builder), // TODO: error on extra attrs? + } + })? + .build(); + + let opening_event = match mode { + Mode::Default => { + let opening_html = listing.opening_html(); + Event::Html(opening_html.into()) + } + Mode::Simple => { + let opening_text = listing.opening_text(); + Event::Text(opening_text.into()) + } + }; + + self.current = Some(listing); + self.events.push(Ok(opening_event)); + Ok(()) + } + + fn close_listing(&mut self, tag: pulldown_cmark::CowStr<'_>, mode: Mode) { + let trailing = if !tag.ends_with('>') { + tag.replace("", "") + } else { + String::from("") + }; + + match &self.current { + Some(listing) => { + let closing_event = match mode { + Mode::Default => { + let closing_html = listing.closing_html(&trailing); + Event::Html(closing_html.into()) + } + Mode::Simple => { + let closing_text = listing.closing_text(&trailing); + Event::Text(closing_text.into()) + } + }; + + self.current = None; + self.events.push(Ok(closing_event)); + } + None => { + self.events.push(Err(String::from( + "Closing `` without opening tag.", + ))); + } + } + } +} + #[derive(Debug)] struct Listing { - number: String, - caption: String, + number: Option, + caption: Option, file_name: Option, } @@ -277,12 +299,21 @@ impl Listing { } fn closing_html(&self, trailing: &str) -> String { - format!( - r#"
Listing {number}: {caption}
-{trailing}"#, - number = self.number, - caption = self.caption - ) + match (&self.number, &self.caption) { + (Some(number), Some(caption)) => format!( + r#"
Listing {number}: {caption}
+{trailing}"# + ), + (None, Some(caption)) => format!( + r#"
{caption}
+{trailing}"# + ), + (Some(number), None) => format!( + r#"
Listing {number}
+{trailing}"# + ), + (None, None) => format!("{trailing}"), + } } fn opening_text(&self) -> String { @@ -293,22 +324,25 @@ impl Listing { } fn closing_text(&self, trailing: &str) -> String { - format!( - "Listing {number}: {caption}{trailing}", - number = self.number, - caption = self.caption, - ) + match (&self.number, &self.caption) { + (Some(number), Some(caption)) => { + format!("Listing {number}: {caption}{trailing}") + } + (None, Some(caption)) => format!("{caption}{trailing}"), + (Some(number), None) => format!("Listing {number}{trailing}"), + (None, None) => trailing.into(), + } } } -struct ListingBuilder<'a> { - number: Option<&'a str>, - caption: Option<&'a str>, - file_name: Option<&'a str>, +struct ListingBuilder { + number: Option, + caption: Option, + file_name: Option, } -impl<'a> ListingBuilder<'a> { - fn new() -> ListingBuilder<'a> { +impl ListingBuilder { + fn new() -> ListingBuilder { ListingBuilder { number: None, caption: None, @@ -316,432 +350,40 @@ impl<'a> ListingBuilder<'a> { } } - fn with_number(mut self, value: &'a str) -> Self { + fn with_number(mut self, value: String) -> Self { self.number = Some(value); self } - fn with_caption(mut self, value: &'a str) -> Self { + fn with_caption(mut self, value: String) -> Self { self.caption = Some(value); self } - fn with_file_name(mut self, value: &'a str) -> Self { + fn with_file_name(mut self, value: String) -> Self { self.file_name = Some(value); self } - fn build(self) -> Result { - let number = self - .number - .ok_or_else(|| String::from("Missing number"))? - .to_owned(); - - let caption = self - .caption - .map(|caption_source| { - let events = new_cmark_parser(caption_source, true); - let mut buf = String::with_capacity(caption_source.len() * 2); - html::push_html(&mut buf, events); - - // This is not particularly principled, but since the only - // place it is used is here, for caption source handling, it - // is “fine”. - buf.replace("

", "").replace("

", "").replace('\n', "") - }) - .ok_or_else(|| String::from("Missing caption"))? - .to_owned(); + fn build(self) -> Listing { + let caption = self.caption.map(|caption_source| { + let events = new_cmark_parser(&caption_source, true); + let mut buf = String::with_capacity(caption_source.len() * 2); + html::push_html(&mut buf, events); + + // This is not particularly principled, but since the only + // place it is used is here, for caption source handling, it + // is “fine”. + buf.replace("

", "").replace("

", "").replace('\n', "") + }); - Ok(Listing { - number, + Listing { + number: self.number.map(String::from), caption, file_name: self.file_name.map(String::from), - }) + } } } #[cfg(test)] -mod tests { - use super::*; - - /// Note: This inserts an additional backtick around the re-emitted code. - /// It is not clear *why*, but that seems to be an artifact of the rendering - /// done by the `pulldown_cmark_to_cmark` crate. - #[test] - fn default_mode_works() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"- -```rust -fn main() {} -``` - -"#, - Mode::Default, - ); - - assert_eq!( - &result.unwrap(), - r#"
-Filename: src/main.rs - -````rust -fn main() {} -```` - -
Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc.
-
"# - ); - } - - #[test] - fn simple_mode_works() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"- -```rust -fn main() {} -``` - -"#, - Mode::Simple, - ); - - assert_eq!( - &result.unwrap(), - r#" -Filename: src/main.rs - -````rust -fn main() {} -```` - -Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc."# - ); - } - - #[test] - fn actual_listing() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. - -- -```rust -fn main() { - println!("Hello, world!"); -} -``` - - - -Save the file and go back to your terminal window"#, - Mode::Default, - ); - - assert!(result.is_ok()); - assert_eq!( - result.unwrap(), - r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. - -
-Filename: main.rs - -````rust -fn main() { - println!("Hello, world!"); -} -```` - -
Listing 1-1: A program that prints Hello, world!
-
- -Save the file and go back to your terminal window"# - ); - } - - #[test] - fn no_filename() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"This is the opening. - -- -```rust -fn main() {} -``` - - - -This is the closing."#, - Mode::Default, - ); - - assert!(result.is_ok()); - assert_eq!( - result.unwrap(), - r#"This is the opening. - -
- -````rust -fn main() {} -```` - -
Listing 1-1: This is the caption
-
- -This is the closing."# - ); - } - - /// Check that the config options are correctly handled. - /// - /// Note: none of these tests particularly exercise the *wiring*. They just - /// assume that the config itself is done correctly. This is a small enough - /// chunk of code that it easy to verify by hand at present. If it becomes - /// more complex in the future, it would be good to revisit and integrate - /// the same kinds of tests as the unit tests above here. - #[cfg(test)] - mod config { - use super::*; - - // TODO: what *should* the behavior here be? I *think* it should error, - // in that there is a problem if it is invoked without that info. - #[test] - fn no_config() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": {} - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_err()); - let err = result.unwrap_err(); - assert_eq!(format!("{err}"), "No config for trpl-listing"); - } - - #[test] - fn empty_config() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": {} - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_ok()); - } - - #[test] - fn specify_default() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": { - "output-mode": "default" - } - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_ok()); - } - - #[test] - fn specify_simple() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": { - "output-mode": "simple" - } - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_ok()); - } - - #[test] - fn specify_invalid() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": { - "output-mode": "nonsense" - } - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_err()); - let err = result.unwrap_err(); - assert_eq!( - format!("{err}"), - "Bad config value '\"nonsense\"' for key 'output-mode'" - ); - } - } -} +mod tests; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/config.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/config.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d44004b3e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/config.rs @@ -0,0 +1,242 @@ +//! Check that the config options are correctly handled. +//! +//! Note: none of these tests particularly exercise the *wiring*. They just +//! assume that the config itself is done correctly. This is a small enough +//! chunk of code that it easy to verify by hand at present. If it becomes +//! more complex in the future, it would be good to revisit and integrate +//! the same kinds of tests as the unit tests above here. + +use super::*; + +// TODO: what *should* the behavior here be? I *think* it should error, +// in that there is a problem if it is invoked without that info. +#[test] +fn no_config() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": {} + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_err()); + let err = result.unwrap_err(); + assert_eq!(format!("{err}"), "No config for trpl-listing"); +} + +#[test] +fn empty_config() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": {} + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_ok()); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_default() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": { + "output-mode": "default" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_ok()); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_simple() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": { + "output-mode": "simple" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_ok()); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_invalid() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": { + "output-mode": "nonsense" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_err()); + let err = result.unwrap_err(); + assert_eq!( + format!("{err}"), + "Bad config value '\"nonsense\"' for key 'output-mode'" + ); +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/mod.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/mod.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5ae5c8e964 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/mod.rs @@ -0,0 +1,192 @@ +use super::*; + +/// Note: This inserts an additional backtick around the re-emitted code. +/// It is not clear *why*, but that seems to be an artifact of the rendering +/// done by the `pulldown_cmark_to_cmark` crate. +#[test] +fn default_mode_works() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"
+Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc.
+
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn simple_mode_works() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Simple, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#" +Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc."# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn listing_with_embedded_angle_brackets() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn get_a_box_of(t: T) -> Box { + Box::new(T) +} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"
+ +````rust +fn get_a_box_of(t: T) -> Box { + Box::new(T) +} +```` + +
Listing 34-5: This has a Box<T> in it.
+
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn actual_listing() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. + ++ +```rust +fn main() { + println!("Hello, world!"); +} +``` + + + +Save the file and go back to your terminal window"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. + +
+Filename: main.rs + +````rust +fn main() { + println!("Hello, world!"); +} +```` + +
Listing 1-1: A program that prints Hello, world!
+
+ +Save the file and go back to your terminal window"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn no_filename() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"This is the opening. + ++ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + + + +This is the closing."#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"This is the opening. + +
+ +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
Listing 1-1: This is the caption
+
+ +This is the closing."# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn without_number() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"
+Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
"# + ); +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod config; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs index 1508a566ed..115641bac2 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs @@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ impl Preprocessor for TrplNote { } fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { - renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" } } diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs index 7d11278876..6212ca012d 100644 --- a/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs @@ -46,27 +46,11 @@ fn parse_references(buffer: String) -> (String, HashMap) { fn parse_links((buffer, ref_map): (String, HashMap)) -> String { // FIXME: check which punctuation is allowed by spec. let re = Regex::new(r###"(?:(?P
(?:```(?:[^`]|`[^`])*`?\n```\n)|(?:[^\[]`[^`\n]+[\n]?[^`\n]*`))|(?:\[(?P[^]]+)\](?:(?:\([[:blank:]]*(?P[^")]*[^ ])(?:[[:blank:]]*"[^"]*")?\))|(?:\[(?P[^]]*)\]))?))"###).expect("could not create regex");
-    let error_code =
-        Regex::new(r###"^E\d{4}$"###).expect("could not create regex");
     let output = re.replace_all(&buffer, |caps: &Captures<'_>| {
         match caps.name("pre") {
             Some(pre_section) => pre_section.as_str().to_string(),
             None => {
                 let name = caps.name("name").expect("could not get name").as_str();
-                // Really we should ignore text inside code blocks,
-                // this is a hack to not try to treat `#[derive()]`,
-                // `[profile]`, `[test]`, or `[E\d\d\d\d]` like a link.
-                if name.starts_with("derive(") ||
-                   name.starts_with("profile") ||
-                   name.starts_with("test") ||
-                   name.starts_with("no_mangle") ||
-                   name.starts_with("cfg") ||
-                   name.starts_with("unoptimized") ||
-                   name.starts_with("ignore") ||
-                   name.starts_with("should_panic") ||
-                   error_code.is_match(name) {
-                    return format!("[{name}]")
-                }
 
                 let val = match caps.name("val") {
                     // `[name](link)`
@@ -81,8 +65,10 @@ fn parse_links((buffer, ref_map): (String, HashMap)) -> String {
                                     _ => ref_map.get(&key.as_str().to_uppercase()).unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not find url for the link text `{}`", key.as_str())).to_string(),
                                 }
                             }
-                            // `[name]` as reference
-                            None => ref_map.get(&name.to_uppercase()).unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not find url for the link text `{name}`")).to_string(),
+                            // `[name]` is within code and should not be treated as a link
+                            None => {
+                                return format!("[{name}]");
+                            }
                         }
                     }
                 };
@@ -236,11 +222,11 @@ more text"
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn parses_link_without_reference_as_reference() {
+    fn does_not_parse_link_without_reference_as_reference() {
         let source = r"[link] is alone
 [link]: The contents"
             .to_string();
-        let target = r"link at *The contents* is alone".to_string();
+        let target = r"[link] is alone".to_string();
         assert_eq!(parse(source), target);
     }
 
@@ -294,7 +280,7 @@ version = "0.1.0"
 
 [dependencies]
 ```
-Another [link]
+Another [link][]
 more text
 [link]: http://gohere
 "###
diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs
index c9a2f45974..09fb209761 100644
--- a/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs
+++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs
@@ -28,26 +28,59 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), Box> {
         let chapter = chapter?;
         let chapter_path = chapter.path();
 
+        if !chapter_path.is_dir() {
+            eprintln!(
+                "'{}' is not a directory, skipping",
+                chapter_path.display()
+            );
+            continue;
+        }
+
         let chapter_name = chapter_path
             .file_name()
             .expect("Chapter should've had a name");
 
         // Create a corresponding chapter dir in `tmp/listings`
         let output_chapter_path = out_dir.join(chapter_name);
-        fs::create_dir(&output_chapter_path)?;
+        fs::create_dir(&output_chapter_path).map_err(|e| {
+            format!(
+                "could not create dir at '{}': {e}",
+                output_chapter_path.display()
+            )
+        })?;
 
         // For each listing in the chapter directory,
-        for listing in fs::read_dir(chapter_path)? {
-            let listing = listing?;
+        for listing in fs::read_dir(&chapter_path).map_err(|e| {
+            format!("Could not read '{}': {e}", chapter_path.display())
+        })? {
+            let listing = listing.map_err(|e| {
+                format!(
+                    "bad dir entry listing in {}: {e}",
+                    chapter_path.display()
+                )
+            })?;
             let listing_path = listing.path();
 
+            if !listing_path.is_dir() {
+                eprintln!(
+                    "'{}' is not a directory, skipping",
+                    chapter_path.display()
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
+
             let listing_name = listing_path
                 .file_name()
                 .expect("Listing should've had a name");
 
             // Create a corresponding listing dir in the tmp chapter dir
             let output_listing_dir = output_chapter_path.join(listing_name);
-            fs::create_dir(&output_listing_dir)?;
+            fs::create_dir(&output_listing_dir).map_err(|e| {
+                format!(
+                    "could not create dir '{}': {e}",
+                    output_listing_dir.display()
+                )
+            })?;
 
             // Copy all the cleaned files in the listing to the tmp directory
             copy_cleaned_listing_files(listing_path, output_listing_dir)?;
@@ -79,8 +112,12 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files(
     from: PathBuf,
     to: PathBuf,
 ) -> Result<(), Box> {
-    for item in fs::read_dir(from)? {
-        let item = item?;
+    for item in fs::read_dir(&from).map_err(|e| {
+        format!("Could not read_dir on '{}': {e}", from.display())
+    })? {
+        let item = item.map_err(|e| {
+            format!("invalid dir entry in {}: {e}", from.display())
+        })?;
         let item_path = item.path();
 
         let item_name =
@@ -90,7 +127,12 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files(
         if item_path.is_dir() {
             // Don't copy `target` directories
             if item_name != "target" {
-                fs::create_dir(&output_item)?;
+                fs::create_dir(&output_item).map_err(|e| {
+                    format!(
+                        "Could not create output directory '{}': {e}",
+                        output_item.display()
+                    )
+                })?;
                 copy_cleaned_listing_files(item_path, output_item)?;
             }
         } else {
@@ -105,7 +147,13 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files(
                     )?;
                 } else {
                     // Copy any non-Rust files without modification
-                    fs::copy(item_path, output_item)?;
+                    fs::copy(&item_path, &output_item).map_err(|e| {
+                        format!(
+                            "Could not copy from '{}' to '{}': {e}",
+                            item_path.display(),
+                            output_item.display()
+                        )
+                    })?;
                 }
             }
         }
diff --git a/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..e579745ea9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# CHANGELOG
+
+## 0.1.0
+
+Initial release! Adds support code for the first draft of the new async chapter of the book.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..bd14bf21d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+# Contributing
+
+## 🚧 Under construction! 🚧
+
+Thanks for your interesting in helping us with this! At the moment, we are not
+ready for contributions, though.
+
+Once we stabilize the contents of the book, including the APIs we are
+re-exporting here and the little bits of functionality implemented in that
+crate, we will gladly take all the help we can get for maintaining this. We will
+update this document once we are ready for contributions.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock b/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..bc42cb8b60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock
@@ -0,0 +1,1853 @@
+# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo.
+# It is not intended for manual editing.
+version = 3
+
+[[package]]
+name = "addr2line"
+version = "0.21.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb"
+dependencies = [
+ "gimli",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "adler"
+version = "1.0.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "f26201604c87b1e01bd3d98f8d5d9a8fcbb815e8cedb41ffccbeb4bf593a35fe"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "ahash"
+version = "0.8.11"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "e89da841a80418a9b391ebaea17f5c112ffaaa96f621d2c285b5174da76b9011"
+dependencies = [
+ "cfg-if",
+ "getrandom",
+ "once_cell",
+ "version_check",
+ "zerocopy",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "atomic-waker"
+version = "1.1.2"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "1505bd5d3d116872e7271a6d4e16d81d0c8570876c8de68093a09ac269d8aac0"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "autocfg"
+version = "1.3.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "0c4b4d0bd25bd0b74681c0ad21497610ce1b7c91b1022cd21c80c6fbdd9476b0"
+
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+dependencies = [
+ "proc-macro2",
+ "quote",
+ "syn",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "zeroize"
+version = "1.8.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "ced3678a2879b30306d323f4542626697a464a97c0a07c9aebf7ebca65cd4dde"
diff --git a/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..62a602ea19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+[package]
+name = "trpl"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+license = "MIT OR Apache-2.0"
+description = "A support crate for The Rust Programming Language book"
+readme = "README.md"
+repository = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book"
+authors = ["Chris Krycho "]
+
+# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html
+
+[dependencies]
+futures = "0.3"
+reqwest = "0.12"
+scraper = "0.20"
+tokio = { version = "1", default-features = false, features = [
+    "fs",
+    "rt-multi-thread",
+    "sync",
+    "time",
+] }
+tokio-stream = "0.1"
diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..38634daab0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE
@@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
+                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
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+   You may add Your own copyright statement to Your modifications and
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+   reproduction, and distribution of the Work otherwise complies with
+   the conditions stated in this License.
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+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
+   with Licensor regarding such Contributions.
+
+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
+   names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
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+   origin of the Work and reproducing the content of the NOTICE file.
+
+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or
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+
+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
+   unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
+   negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
+   liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
+   incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
+   result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
+   Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
+   work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
+   other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
+   has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
+
+9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
+   the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
+   and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
+   or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
+   License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
+   of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
+   defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
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+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets "[]"
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don't include
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+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
+   same "printed page" as the copyright notice for easier
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+
+Copyright 2010 The Rust Project Developers
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..25597d5838
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+Copyright (c) 2010 The Rust Project Developers
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/README.md b/packages/trpl/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..7d22504888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+# The Rust Programming Language Book Crate
+
+![Build Status](https://github.com/chriskrycho/trpl-crate/workflows/CI/badge.svg)
+
+This repository is the home of the `trpl` crate used in _The Rust Programming
+Language_ book materials.
+
+This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for two
+main reasons:
+
+1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can add
+   just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and likewise
+   use only one set of imports.
+
+2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since we
+   control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will never be
+   broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 release at some
+   point.
+
+## Requirements
+
+This crate currently requires at least Rust 1.79.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..999cb6e273
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+//! A support crate for [_The Rust Programming Language_][trpl].
+//!
+//! [trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book
+//!
+//! This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for
+//! two main reasons:
+//!
+//! 1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can
+//!    add just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and
+//!    likewise use only one set of imports.
+//!
+//! 2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since
+//!    we control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will
+//!    never be broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0
+//!    release at some point.
+
+// For direct use within the `trpl` crate, *not* re-exported.
+use std::{future::Future, pin::pin};
+
+use futures::future;
+
+// Re-exports, to be used like `trpl::join`.
+pub use futures::{
+    future::{join, join3, join_all, Either},
+    join,
+};
+pub use tokio::{
+    fs::read_to_string,
+    runtime::Runtime,
+    // We use the `unbounded` variants because they most closely match the APIs
+    // from `std::sync::mpsc::channel`. Tokio's API choices are interesting:
+    //
+    // | `tokio::sync::mpsc` | `std::sync::mpsc` |
+    // | ------------------- | ----------------- |
+    // | `channel`           | `sync_channel`    |
+    // | `unbounded_channel` | `channel`         |
+    //
+    // The book collapses these differences for pedagogical simplicity, so that
+    // readers are not asking why `unbounded` is now important and can focus on
+    // the more important differences between sync and async APIs.
+    sync::mpsc::{
+        unbounded_channel as channel, UnboundedReceiver as Receiver,
+        UnboundedSender as Sender,
+    },
+    task::{spawn as spawn_task, yield_now, JoinHandle},
+    time::{interval, sleep},
+};
+
+pub use tokio_stream::{
+    iter as stream_from_iter,
+    wrappers::{IntervalStream, UnboundedReceiverStream as ReceiverStream},
+    Stream, StreamExt,
+};
+
+/// Run a single future to completion on a bespoke Tokio `Runtime`.
+///
+/// Every time you call this, a new instance of `tokio::runtime::Runtime` will
+/// be created (see the implementation for details: it is trivial). This is:
+///
+/// - Reasonable for teaching purposes, in that you do not generally need to set
+///   up more than one runtime anyway, and especially do not in basic code like
+///   we are showing!
+///
+/// - Not *that* far off from what Tokio itself does under the hood in its own
+///   `tokio::main` macro for supporting `async fn main`.
+pub fn run(future: F) -> F::Output {
+    let rt = Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    rt.block_on(future)
+}
+
+/// Run two futures, taking whichever finishes first and canceling the other.
+///
+/// Notice that this is built on [`futures::future::select`], which has the
+/// same overall semantics but does *not* drop the slower future. The idea there
+/// is that you can work with the first result and then later *also* continue
+/// waiting for the second future.
+///
+/// We use the `race` semantics, where the slower future is simply dropped, for
+/// the sake of simplicity in the examples: no need to deal with the tuple and
+/// intentionally ignore the second future this way!
+///
+/// Note that this only works as “simply” as it does because:
+///
+/// - It takes ownership of the futures.
+/// - It internally *pins* the futures.
+/// - It throws away (rather than returning) the unused future (which is why it
+///   can get away with pinning them).
+pub async fn race(f1: F1, f2: F2) -> Either
+where
+    F1: Future,
+    F2: Future,
+{
+    let f1 = pin!(f1);
+    let f2 = pin!(f2);
+    match future::select(f1, f2).await {
+        Either::Left((a, _f2)) => Either::Left(a),
+        Either::Right((b, _f1)) => Either::Right(b),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fetch data from a URL. For more convenient use in _The Rust Programming
+/// Language_, panics instead of returning a [`Result`] if the request fails.
+pub async fn get(url: &str) -> Response {
+    Response(reqwest::get(url).await.unwrap())
+}
+
+/// A thin wrapper around [`reqwest::Response`] to make the demos in _The Rust
+/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use.
+pub struct Response(reqwest::Response);
+
+impl Response {
+    /// Get the full response text.
+    ///
+    /// If the response cannot be deserialized, this panics instead of returning
+    /// a [`Result`] (for convenience in the demo).
+    pub async fn text(self) -> String {
+        self.0.text().await.unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A thin wrapper around [`scraper::Html`] to make the demos in _The Rust
+/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use.
+pub struct Html {
+    inner: scraper::Html,
+}
+
+impl Html {
+    /// Parse an HTML document from a string.
+    ///
+    /// This is just a thin wrapper around `scraper::Html::parse_document` to
+    /// keep the exported API surface simpler.
+    pub fn parse(source: &str) -> Html {
+        Html {
+            inner: scraper::Html::parse_document(source),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the first item in the document matching a string selector. Returns
+    /// Some()
+    ///
+    /// If the selector is not a valid CSS selector, panics rather than
+    /// returning a [`Result`] for convenience.
+    pub fn select_first<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        selector: &'a str,
+    ) -> Option> {
+        let selector = scraper::Selector::parse(selector).unwrap();
+        self.inner.select(&selector).nth(0)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..afc5f81864
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,242 @@
+//! Integration tests for the crate.
+//!
+//! These all live in a *single* integration test crate, `tests/integration`,
+//! because each integration test is a dedicated binary crate which has to be
+//! compiled separately. While that is not really a problem for a crate this
+//! small, we have chosen to follow this “best practice” here as a good example.
+//!
+//! For more details on why you might prefer this pattern see [this post][post].
+//!
+//! [post]: https://matklad.github.io/2021/02/27/delete-cargo-integration-tests.html
+
+use std::{pin::Pin, time::Duration};
+
+use futures::Future;
+use trpl::{Either, Receiver, Sender};
+
+/// This test is foundational for all the others, as they depend on `run`.
+///
+/// If we mess this up, *all* the tests below will fail -- so by the same token,
+/// if all the tests below are failing, this one probably is too; fix it and the
+/// others will likely start working again.
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_run_works() {
+    let val = trpl::run(async { "Hello" });
+    assert_eq!(val, "Hello");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_spawn_works() {
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        let handle_a = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Hello" });
+        let handle_b = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Goodbye" });
+        vec![handle_a.await.unwrap(), handle_b.await.unwrap()]
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, vec!["Hello", "Goodbye"]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_sleep_works() {
+    let val = trpl::run(async {
+        trpl::sleep(Duration::from_micros(1)).await;
+        "Done!"
+    });
+    assert_eq!(val, "Done!");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_channel_apis_work() {
+    trpl::run(async {
+        // Explicitly naming the type to confirm the re-exports are aligned.
+        let (tx, mut rx): (Sender<&str>, Receiver<&str>) = trpl::channel();
+
+        tx.send("Hello").unwrap();
+        trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+        tx.send("Goodbye").unwrap();
+        drop(tx);
+
+        assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Hello"));
+        assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Goodbye"));
+        assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, None);
+    });
+}
+
+mod re_exported_join_apis_work {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join_fn() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { 1 };
+            let b = async { 2 };
+            trpl::join(a, b).await
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(result, (1, 2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join3_fn() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { 1 };
+            let b = async { 2 };
+            let c = async { 3 };
+
+            trpl::join3(a, b, c).await
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(result, (1, 2, 3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join_all_fn() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { format!("{}", 1) };
+
+            let b = async { "Hello".to_string() };
+
+            let outer = String::from("World");
+            let c = async move { outer.to_string() };
+
+            let futures: Vec>>> =
+                vec![Box::pin(a), Box::pin(b), Box::pin(c)];
+
+            trpl::join_all(futures).await
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            result,
+            vec![
+                String::from("1"),
+                String::from("Hello"),
+                String::from("World")
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join_macro() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { 1 };
+            let b = async { "Hello" };
+
+            let outer = vec![String::from("World")];
+            let c = async move { outer };
+
+            trpl::join!(a, b, c)
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(result, (1, "Hello", vec![String::from("World")]));
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn race() {
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct Slow;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct Fast;
+
+    let val = trpl::run(async {
+        let slow = async {
+            trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1_000)).await;
+            Slow
+        };
+
+        let fast = async {
+            trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+            Fast
+        };
+
+        trpl::race(slow, fast).await
+    });
+
+    assert!(matches!(val, Either::Right(Fast)));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn yield_now() {
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        trpl::yield_now().await;
+        "done"
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, "done");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn read_to_string() {
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        trpl::read_to_string("tests/integration/to-read.txt")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, String::from("This is some text!\n"));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn stream_iter() {
+    use trpl::StreamExt;
+
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        let ns = vec![1, 2, 3];
+        let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(ns);
+        let mut result = vec![];
+        while let Some(n) = stream.next().await {
+            result.push(format!("{n}"));
+        }
+        result
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        result,
+        vec![String::from("1"), String::from("2"), String::from("3")]
+    )
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn receiver_stream() {
+    use trpl::ReceiverStream;
+    use trpl::StreamExt;
+
+    let result: Vec = trpl::run(async {
+        println!("startup");
+        let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel();
+        let rx_stream = ReceiverStream::new(rx);
+        println!("sending 123");
+        tx.send(123).unwrap();
+        drop(tx); // So the receiver channel closes!
+
+        rx_stream.collect().await
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, vec![123]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_interval_stream_works() {
+    use trpl::{IntervalStream, StreamExt};
+
+    trpl::run(async {
+        let mut interval_stream =
+            IntervalStream::new(trpl::interval(Duration::from_millis(1)))
+                .take(1);
+
+        assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_some());
+        assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_none());
+    });
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_html() {
+    use trpl::Html;
+
+    let doc = Html::parse(
+        "

Hello!

", + ); + let p = doc.select_first("p").map(|el| el.inner_html()); + assert_eq!(p, Some(String::from("Hello!"))); +} diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2af04f5bdf --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +This is some text! diff --git a/quizzes/async-01-futures-and-syntax.toml b/quizzes/async-01-futures-and-syntax.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8a52583986 --- /dev/null +++ b/quizzes/async-01-futures-and-syntax.toml @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = "If you want to wait on a future in non-async code, you should do which of the following?" +prompt.distractors = [ + "Put an `.await` directly after the future", + "Give the future to Rust's built-in async runtime", + "Wrap the future in an `async` block and `.await` the block", +] +answer.answer = "Give the future to a third-party async runtime" +context = """ +Rust does not let you use `.await` outside of `async` blocks or functions. Rust also does not have a built-in async runtime. +You should use a third-party async runtime like `tokio` or `trpl`. +""" +id = "de2a5023-dd5c-412e-8425-c8ed638f18f0" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +The async function below desugars into which type signature? + +```rust +async fn calculate(nums: &[i32]) -> i32 { + /* ... */ +} +``` +""" +prompt.distractors = [ + """ +```rust +fn calculate<'a>(nums: &'a [i32], output: &mut impl Future + 'a); +``` + """, + """ +```rust +fn calculate(nums: &'_ [i32]) -> i32 as Future; +``` + """, + """ +```rust +fn calculate() -> impl for<'a> Future + 'a; +``` + """ +] +answer.answer = """ +```rust +fn calculate<'a>(nums: &'a [i32]) -> impl Future + 'a; +``` +""" +context = """ +An async function returns an anonymous type that implements the `Future` trait whose output is the function's return type. +So here, that is represented as `impl Future`. The future captures any lifetimes in the function's arguments. +Therefore the returned type has the bound `+ 'a` and the input slice has the type `&'a [i32]`. This indicates that the slice +must live at least as long as the future which captures it. +""" +id = "9c000322-464b-4d34-9e30-55591f9283d2" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = "Given a future `f`, which of the following best describes how `f.await` works?" +prompt.distractors = [ + "It calls `f.poll()` once, which blocks in-place until `f` is ready", + "It calls `f.poll()` in a loop, exiting if `f` is ready, or immediately polling again if `f` is not ready", + "It calls `f.push(...)` once, which executes a callback containing the remaining code after `f.await` once `f` is ready" +] +answer.answer = "It calls `f.poll()` in a loop, exiting if `f` is ready, or returning control to the async runtime if `f` is not ready" +context = """ +Rust uses a poll-based model for future execution. An await point desugars into a loop which repeatedly calls `.poll()`, +and cedes control to the async runtime after each unsuccessful poll to allow other async code to run. The runtime can later +"wake up" the `f.await` code to poll `f` again. +""" +id = "c4d90f3c-7286-4272-921c-241b266e9f91" diff --git a/quizzes/async-02-concurrency-with-async.toml b/quizzes/async-02-concurrency-with-async.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6f7356aef3 --- /dev/null +++ b/quizzes/async-02-concurrency-with-async.toml @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Consider the following function: + +```rust +async fn print_letters() { + let a = async { print!("A"); }; + let b = async { print!("B"); }; + let c = async { print!("C"); }; + c.await; + b.await; + a.await; +} +``` + +Which of the following strings can possibly be printed after running `print_letters().await`? +""" +prompt.distractors = ["`ABC`", "`BCA`", "`ACB`"] +answer.answer = ["`CBA`"] +context = """ +This program has deterministic behavior. The prints do not execute until the async blocks are awaited. +The blocks are awaited in the order `c`/`b`/`a`, so the program will only print `CBA`. +""" +id = "8f62c158-525a-43a2-aa6a-0cc106cada10" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Say you are given a helper function `wait_all(a, b)` with the following behavior: +* `wait_all` guarantees that `a` and `b` are executed to completion. +* `wait_all` makes no guarantees regarding fairness or initial execution order. + +Then given the following code: + +```rust +async fn print_letters() { + let fut1 = async { + print!("A"); + sleep().await; + print!("B"); + }; + let fut2 = async { + print!("C"); + sleep().await; + print!("D"); + } + wait_all(fut1, fut2).await; +} +``` + +Which of the following strings can possibly be printed after running `print_letters().await`? +""" +prompt.distractors = ["`DABC`"] +answer.answer = [ + "`ABCD`", "`CADB`", "`ACBD`" +] +context = """ +The hypothetical `wait_all` primitive is like `join` but with fewer guarantees. Given only the spec in this problem, any interleaving of the +two futures is valid. The only invalid output is one that inverts program execution order, i.e., `DABC` which would have `D` printed before `C`. +""" +id = "4b28f13e-9781-4d29-b886-7639fa527f36" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Say you are given a message-passing channel `channel()` which is non-blocking and unbounded, +and a function `join(a, b)` which fairly waits on both its arguments to completion. Then given this async code: + +```rust +let (tx, mut rx) = channel(); +let recv_fut = rx.recv(); +let send_fut = tx.send(0); +let (n, _) = join(recv_fut, send_fut).await; +println!("{}", n.unwrap()); +``` + +What will happen as a result of executing this code? +""" +prompt.distractors = [ + "The program prints `0` and loops forever", + "The program prints nothing and loops forever", + "The program panics" +] +answer.answer = "The program prints `0` and exits" +id = "e23b7c48-3780-44e7-8ea4-df35032548a1" diff --git a/quizzes/async-03-more-futures.toml b/quizzes/async-03-more-futures.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d1875580c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/quizzes/async-03-more-futures.toml @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Given a function `sleep(d)` that sleeps for the given duration, consider this function: + +```rust +let futs: Vec<_> = [1, 2, 3].iter().map(|n| async { + sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + n + 1 +}).collect(); + +for fut in futs { + let n = fut.await; + println!("{n}"); +} +``` + +When executed, about how many seconds should this take to execute? +""" +prompt.distractors = ["5", "0"] +answer.answer = "15" +context = """ +Without using a function like `join_all`, the futures will not run concurrently. Therefore this code would take 15 seconds (5 seconds per list element). +""" +id = "68680e2e-7a9f-4cee-8080-70e57fe5a2b3" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Say you are designing a utility function with the following specification: + +> `map_stringify` takes two arguments: a vector of inputs, and an async function that converts the input to an output, +> where the outputs can be converted to strings. +> `map_stringify` returns a vector of stringified outputs. + +Which function type signature best encodes this specification? +""" +prompt.distractors = [ +""" +```rust +async fn map_stringify( + inputs: Vec, f: impl Future +) -> Vec +``` +""", +""" +```rust +fn map_stringify( + inputs: Vec, f: impl Fn(I) -> O, +) -> Vec> +where + O: ToString, +``` +""", +""" +```rust +async fn map_stringify( + inputs: Vec, f: impl Fn(I) -> F, +) -> Vec +where + F: Future + ToString, +``` +"""] +answer.answer = """ +```rust +async fn map_stringify( + inputs: Vec, f: impl Fn(I) -> F, +) -> Vec +where + O: ToString, + F: Future, +``` +""" +context = """ +Here's one implementation of the specified function: + +```rust +async fn map_stringify( + f: impl Fn(I) -> F, inputs: Vec +) -> Vec +where + O: ToString, + F: Future, +{ + let f = &f; + let futs = inputs + .into_iter() + .map(|input| async move { f(input).await.to_string() }); + futures::future::join_all(futs).await +} +``` +""" +id = "b42a9c5b-bfe7-4d6f-967a-f8ff2a6faa0d" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Say you are writing a program that needs to run some async code, but every 500ms check to see if the computation should be halted. +Which helper function would be most appropriate for accomplishing this task? +""" +prompt.distractors = [ + "`join`", + "`yield`", + "`spawn` / `spawn_task`" +] +answer.answer = "`race` / `select`" +context = """ +For instance, you could run a `select` in a loop between a long-running future and a sleep future that completes in 500ms. +""" +id = "7da21e95-8e03-412b-8c4d-90ccfc8c6802" diff --git a/quizzes/async-04-streams.toml b/quizzes/async-04-streams.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a1801f6478 --- /dev/null +++ b/quizzes/async-04-streams.toml @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +The `Stream` trait is most analogous to which non-async trait in the Rust standard library? +""" +prompt.distractors = ["`Write`", "`Index`", "`Sync`"] +answer.answer = "`Iterator`" +context = """ +The `Stream` trait provides an asynchronous version of a Rust iterator. +""" +id = "f94a87f0-a4d6-4cd6-bcee-dfcc606f8ec2" + +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Say you have a stream that produces the sequence `["A", "B", "C"]` and another stream that produces the sequence ["D", "E", "F"]. +You do not know when each stream will emit each character, only that it occurs in the specified sequences. +Consider merging these streams and printing each character. Then select each of the following output strings that could print. +""" +prompt.distractors = [ + "ACBDEF", + "CFBEAD" +] +answer.answer = [ + "ABDEFC", + "DEFABC" +] +context = """ +Merging will always respect ordering in each stream, so for example "B" cannot occur before "C". +""" +id = "84452eff-13df-4fcb-91ea-1f504d5bfaf0" diff --git a/quizzes/async-05-traits-for-async.toml b/quizzes/async-05-traits-for-async.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ececc31ca8 --- /dev/null +++ b/quizzes/async-05-traits-for-async.toml @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +[[questions]] +type = "MultipleChoice" +prompt.prompt = """ +Imagine Rust did not require that futures were pinned in order to be polled. +Which of the following async functions could potentially cause undefined behavior if not pinned? +""" +prompt.distractors = [ +""" +```rust +async fn example(x: &i32) -> i32 { + sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + *y +} +``` +""", +""" +```rust +async fn example(x: Vec) -> i32 { + sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + x[0] +} +``` +""", +""" +```rust +async fn example() -> i32 { + let x = 0; + sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + x +} +``` +""", +] +answer.answer = """ +```rust +async fn example(x: i32) -> i32 { + let y = &x; + sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + *y +} +``` +""" +context = """ +The core problem addressed by pinning in self-reference, or a future which contains a pointer to itself. +This happens an async block contains a local variable that refers to another local variable in the future. +Here, that would be `y = &x`. +""" +id = "bc8b4acb-d111-4fec-b89a-e5d1bc77c8f2" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rust-toolchain b/rust-toolchain index 17420a571f..ea3769f296 100644 --- a/rust-toolchain +++ b/rust-toolchain @@ -1 +1 @@ -1.79 +1.81 diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 46bec2692f..b29dc2393c 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index 6bd221fa3c..e315b35274 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/src/SUMMARY.md b/src/SUMMARY.md index 5e5a1b4901..3b0beccdc4 100644 --- a/src/SUMMARY.md +++ b/src/SUMMARY.md @@ -107,31 +107,39 @@ - [Shared-State Concurrency](ch16-03-shared-state.md) - [Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits](ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md) -- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch17-00-oop.md) - - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch17-01-what-is-oo.md) - - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch17-02-trait-objects.md) - - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md) - - [Ownership Inventory #4](ch17-04-inventory.md) - - [Design Trade-offs](ch17-05-design-challenge.md) +- [Async and Await](ch17-00-async-await.md) + - [Futures and the Async Syntax](ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md) + - [Concurrency With Async](ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md) + - [Working With Any Number of Futures](ch17-03-more-futures.md) + - [Streams](ch17-04-streams.md) + - [Digging Into the Traits for Async](ch17-05-traits-for-async.md) + - [Futures, Tasks, and Threads](ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md) + +- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch18-00-oop.md) + - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch18-01-what-is-oo.md) + - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch18-02-trait-objects.md) + - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md) + - [Ownership Inventory #4](ch18-04-inventory.md) + - [Design Trade-offs](ch18-05-design-challenge.md) ## Advanced Topics -- [Patterns and Matching](ch18-00-patterns.md) - - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) - - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch18-02-refutability.md) - - [Pattern Syntax](ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md) - -- [Advanced Features](ch19-00-advanced-features.md) - - [Unsafe Rust](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md) - - [Advanced Traits](ch19-03-advanced-traits.md) - - [Advanced Types](ch19-04-advanced-types.md) - - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) - - [Macros](ch19-06-macros.md) - -- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) - - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch20-01-single-threaded.md) - - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch20-02-multithreaded.md) - - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) +- [Patterns and Matching](ch19-00-patterns.md) + - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) + - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch19-02-refutability.md) + - [Pattern Syntax](ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md) + +- [Advanced Features](ch20-00-advanced-features.md) + - [Unsafe Rust](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md) + - [Advanced Traits](ch20-03-advanced-traits.md) + - [Advanced Types](ch20-04-advanced-types.md) + - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) + - [Macros](ch20-06-macros.md) + +- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) + - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch21-01-single-threaded.md) + - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch21-02-multithreaded.md) + - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) - [End of Experiment](end-of-experiment.md) diff --git a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md index aecddf8573..e7e529ea5e 100644 --- a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md +++ b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md @@ -183,4 +183,4 @@ ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struc ch04-03-fixing-ownership-errors.html#fixing-an-unsafe-program-copying-vs-moving-out-of-a-collection [ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md b/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md index f41d22db55..ece56b4776 100644 --- a/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md +++ b/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md @@ -113,7 +113,8 @@ everything is in its place. If you started a project that doesn’t use Cargo, as we did with the “Hello, world!” project, you can convert it to a project that does use Cargo. Move the project code into the *src* directory and create an appropriate *Cargo.toml* -file. +file. One easy way to get that *Cargo.toml* file is to run `cargo init`, which +will create it for you automatically. ### Building and Running a Cargo Project diff --git a/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md b/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md index 22cc96b704..09ede68871 100644 --- a/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md +++ b/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md @@ -128,7 +128,8 @@ assigning a value to it with the `let` keyword is a statement. In Listing 3-1, Function definitions are also statements; the entire preceding example is a -statement in itself. +statement in itself. (As we will see below, *calling* a function is not a +statement.) Statements do not return values. Therefore, you can’t assign a `let` statement to another variable, as the following code tries to do; you’ll get an error: diff --git a/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md b/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md index aeb634f5a8..0cea61a69f 100644 --- a/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md +++ b/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md @@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ like this: When we run this program, we’ll see `again!` printed over and over continuously until we stop the program manually. Most terminals support the keyboard shortcut -ctrl-c to interrupt a program that is stuck in a continual +ctrl-c to interrupt a program that is stuck in a continual loop. Give it a try: section of Chapter 15. Defining a -function to take a string slice instead of a reference to a `String` makes our -API more general and useful without losing any functionality: +flexibility takes advantage of *deref coercions*, a feature we will cover in the +[“Implicit Deref Coercions with Functions and +Methods”][deref-coercions] section of Chapter 15. + +Defining a function to take a string slice instead of a reference to a `String` +makes our API more general and useful without losing any functionality: Filename: src/main.rs diff --git a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md index d8c6a1fc7d..f5cf4fb938 100644 --- a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md @@ -658,6 +658,6 @@ Rust’s enum feature to add another tool to your toolbox. {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch05-03-method-syntax-sec2.toml}} [enums]: ch06-00-enums.html -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.md +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.md [public]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html#exposing-paths-with-the-pub-keyword [modules]: ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html diff --git a/src/ch06-02-match.md b/src/ch06-02-match.md index dda6cd4def..77c83e7a59 100644 --- a/src/ch06-02-match.md +++ b/src/ch06-02-match.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that allows you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute code based on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, variable names, wildcards, and many other things; [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns +18][ch19-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns and what they do. The power of `match` comes from the expressiveness of the patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that all possible cases are handled. @@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ that doesn’t match a pattern in an earlier arm, and we don’t want to run any code in this case. There’s more about patterns and matching that we’ll cover in [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns]. +19][ch19-00-patterns]. ### How Matches Interact with Ownership @@ -310,4 +310,5 @@ Rust will “push down” the reference from the outer enum, `&Option`, {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch06-02-match.toml}} [tuples]: ch03-02-data-types.html#the-tuple-type -[ch18-00-patterns]: ch18-00-patterns.html + +[ch19-00-patterns]: ch19-00-patterns.html diff --git a/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md b/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md index a04978c19d..c1084dba20 100644 --- a/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md +++ b/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md @@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in [Chapter 2][rand] provides functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they -use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library". +use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library”. The *crate root* is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in the @@ -33,12 +33,9 @@ build those crates. Cargo is actually a package that contains the binary crate for the command-line tool you’ve been using to build your code. The Cargo package also contains a library crate that the binary crate depends on. Other projects can depend on the Cargo library crate to use the same logic the Cargo -command-line tool uses. - -A crate can come in one of two forms: a binary crate or a library crate. A -package can contain as many binary crates as you like, but at most only one -library crate. A package must contain at least one crate, whether that’s a -library or binary crate. +command-line tool uses. A package can contain as many binary crates as you +like, but at most only one library crate. A package must contain at least one +crate, whether that’s a library or binary crate. Let’s walk through what happens when we create a package. First we enter the command `cargo new my-project`: diff --git a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md index b2bc11118b..c73093e10f 100644 --- a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md +++ b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md @@ -537,5 +537,5 @@ cases. {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-sec2.toml}} [handle_failure]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#handling-potential-failure-with-result -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [termination]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/process/trait.Termination.html diff --git a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md index cfee90e7d2..28c28a0720 100644 --- a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md +++ b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md @@ -221,4 +221,4 @@ Now that you’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with the `Option` and `Result` enums, we’ll talk about how generics work and how you can use them in your code. -[encoding]: ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types +[encoding]: ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types diff --git a/src/ch10-02-traits.md b/src/ch10-02-traits.md index 12afe0d463..7a607eadd7 100644 --- a/src/ch10-02-traits.md +++ b/src/ch10-02-traits.md @@ -389,5 +389,5 @@ of generics. {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch10-02-traits-sec2.toml}} -[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [methods]: ch05-03-method-syntax.html#defining-methods diff --git a/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md b/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md index ae4e40c096..7af3a78f35 100644 --- a/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md @@ -53,10 +53,9 @@ has gone out of scope The outer scope declares a variable named `r` with no initial value, and the inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of `5`. Inside the inner scope, we attempt to set the value of `r` as a reference to `x`. Then -the inner scope ends, and we attempt to print the value in `r`. If this code were -executed, then undefined behavior would occur when `r` is read. - -However, this code won’t compile because the value `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before we try to use it. Here is the error message: +the inner scope ends, and we attempt to print the value in `r`. This code won’t +compile because the value that `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before +we try to use it. Here is the error message: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/output.txt}} diff --git a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md index 451f6af573..951fcb9d44 100644 --- a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md +++ b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md @@ -20,8 +20,8 @@ Along the way, we’ll show how to make our command line tool use the terminal features that many other command line tools use. We’ll read the value of an environment variable to allow the user to configure the behavior of our tool. We’ll also print error messages to the standard error console stream (`stderr`) -instead of standard output (`stdout`), so, for example, the user can redirect -successful output to a file while still seeing error messages onscreen. +instead of standard output (`stdout`) so that, for example, the user can +redirect successful output to a file while still seeing error messages onscreen. One Rust community member, Andrew Gallant, has already created a fully featured, very fast version of `grep`, called `ripgrep`. By comparison, our @@ -31,17 +31,15 @@ background knowledge you need to understand a real-world project such as Our `grep` project will combine a number of concepts you’ve learned so far: -* Organizing code (using what you learned about modules in [Chapter 7][ch7]) -* Using vectors and strings (collections, [Chapter 8][ch8]) +* Organizing code ([Chapter 7][ch7]) +* Using vectors and strings ([Chapter 8][ch8]) * Handling errors ([Chapter 9][ch9]) -* Using traits and lifetimes where appropriate ([Chapter 10][ch10]) +* Using traits and lifetimes where appropriate ([Chapter 10][ch10]) * Writing tests ([Chapter 11][ch11]) We’ll also briefly introduce closures, iterators, and trait objects, which -Chapters [13][ch13] and [17][ch17] will cover in -detail. +[Chapter 13][ch13] and [Chapter 17][ch17] will +cover in detail. [ch7]: ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html [ch8]: ch08-00-common-collections.html @@ -49,4 +47,4 @@ detail. [ch10]: ch10-00-generics.html [ch11]: ch11-00-testing.html [ch13]: ch13-00-functional-features.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch17]: ch18-00-oop.html diff --git a/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md b/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md index 9dc28209b7..34e4504249 100644 --- a/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md +++ b/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ to turn it into a collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements the iterator produces. The code in Listing 12-1 allows your `minigrep` program to read any command -line arguments passed to it and then collect the values into a vector. +line arguments passed to it, and then collect the values into a vector. @@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ line arguments passed to it and then collect the values into a vector. -First, we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we +First we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we can use its `args` function. Notice that the `std::env::args` function is nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in [Chapter 7][ch7-idiomatic-use], in cases where the desired function is @@ -63,14 +63,14 @@ mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. > Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid > Unicode, use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator > that produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to -> use `std::env::args` here for simplicity, because `OsString` values differ -> per platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. +> use `std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per +> platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. On the first line of `main`, we call `env::args`, and we immediately use `collect` to turn the iterator into a vector containing all the values produced by the iterator. We can use the `collect` function to create many kinds of collections, so we explicitly annotate the type of `args` to specify that we -want a vector of strings. Although we very rarely need to annotate types in +want a vector of strings. Although you very rarely need to annotate types in Rust, `collect` is one function you do often need to annotate because Rust isn’t able to infer the kind of collection you want. @@ -89,8 +89,8 @@ Notice that the first value in the vector is `"target/debug/minigrep"`, which is the name of our binary. This matches the behavior of the arguments list in C, letting programs use the name by which they were invoked in their execution. It’s often convenient to have access to the program name in case you want to -print it in messages or change behavior of the program based on what command -line alias was used to invoke the program. But for the purposes of this +print it in messages or change the behavior of the program based on what +command line alias was used to invoke the program. But for the purposes of this chapter, we’ll ignore it and save only the two arguments we need. ### Saving the Argument Values in Variables @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ we can use the values throughout the rest of the program. We do that in Listing As we saw when we printed the vector, the program’s name takes up the first -value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index `1`. The +value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index 1. The first argument `minigrep` takes is the string we’re searching for, so we put a reference to the first argument in the variable `query`. The second argument will be the file path, so we put a reference to the second argument in the diff --git a/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md b/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md index 910850b06b..804683d50d 100644 --- a/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md +++ b/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ ## Reading a File Now we’ll add functionality to read the file specified in the `file_path` -argument. First, we need a sample file to test it with: we’ll use a file with a +argument. First we need a sample file to test it with: we’ll use a file with a small amount of text over multiple lines with some repeated words. Listing 12-3 has an Emily Dickinson poem that will work well! Create a file called *poem.txt* at the root level of your project, and enter the poem “I’m Nobody! Who are you?” -+ ```text {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/poem.txt}} @@ -26,11 +26,12 @@ shown in Listing 12-4. -First, we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` +First we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files. In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `file_path`, opens -that file, and returns a `std::io::Result` of the file’s contents. +that file, and returns a value of type `std::io::Result` that contains +the file’s contents. After that, we again add a temporary `println!` statement that prints the value of `contents` after the file is read, so we can check that the program is @@ -50,6 +51,6 @@ responsibilities: generally, functions are clearer and easier to maintain if each function is responsible for only one idea. The other problem is that we’re not handling errors as well as we could. The program is still small, so these flaws aren’t a big problem, but as the program grows, it will be harder to fix -them cleanly. It’s good practice to begin refactoring early on when developing -a program, because it’s much easier to refactor smaller amounts of code. We’ll -do that next. +them cleanly. It’s a good practice to begin refactoring early on when +developing a program because it’s much easier to refactor smaller amounts of +code. We’ll do that next. diff --git a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md index 0de3ec2c22..64fe188b52 100644 --- a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md +++ b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md @@ -41,8 +41,8 @@ community has developed guidelines for splitting the separate concerns of a binary program when `main` starts getting large. This process has the following steps: -* Split your program into a *main.rs* and a *lib.rs* and move your program’s - logic to *lib.rs*. +* Split your program into a *main.rs* file and a *lib.rs* file and move your + program’s logic to *lib.rs*. * As long as your command line parsing logic is small, it can remain in *main.rs*. * When the command line parsing logic starts getting complicated, extract it @@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ should be limited to the following: * Handling the error if `run` returns an error This pattern is about separating concerns: *main.rs* handles running the -program, and *lib.rs* handles all the logic of the task at hand. Because you +program and *lib.rs* handles all the logic of the task at hand. Because you can’t test the `main` function directly, this structure lets you test all of your program’s logic by moving it into functions in *lib.rs*. The code that remains in *main.rs* will be small enough to verify its correctness by reading @@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ named for their purpose. So far, we’ve extracted the logic responsible for parsing the command line arguments from `main` and placed it in the `parse_config` function. Doing so -helped us to see that the `query` and `file_path` values were related and that +helped us see that the `query` and `file_path` values were related, and that relationship should be conveyed in our code. We then added a `Config` struct to name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return the values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. @@ -208,8 +208,8 @@ they should do instead. Let’s fix that now. #### Improving the Error Message In Listing 12-8, we add a check in the `new` function that will verify that the -slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and 2. If the slice isn’t long -enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. +slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and index 2. If the slice isn’t +long enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. @@ -222,10 +222,10 @@ enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. This code is similar to [the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing 9-13][ch9-custom-types], where we called `panic!` when the `value` argument was out of the range of valid values. Instead of checking for -a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least 3 -and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this +a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least +`3` and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this condition has been met. If `args` has fewer than three items, this condition -will be true, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. +will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. With these extra few lines of code in `new`, let’s run the program without any arguments again to see what the error looks like now: @@ -235,8 +235,8 @@ arguments again to see what the error looks like now: ``` This output is better: we now have a reasonable error message. However, we also -have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps using -the technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best to use here: a call to +have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps the +technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best one to use here: a call to `panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, [as discussed in Chapter 9][ch9-error-guidelines]. Instead, we’ll use the other technique you learned about in Chapter 9—[returning a @@ -270,7 +270,7 @@ well, which we’ll do in the next listing. Our `build` function returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the success -case and a `&'static str` in the error case. Our error values will always be +case and a string literal in the error case. Our error values will always be string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. We’ve made two changes in the body of the function: instead of calling `panic!` @@ -306,15 +306,15 @@ In this listing, we’ve used a method we haven’t covered in detail yet: `unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library. Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error handling. If the `Result` is an `Ok` value, this method’s behavior is similar -to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the value -is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is an -anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. We’ll -cover closures in more detail in [Chapter 13][ch13]. For now, -you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of the -`Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` that we -added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that appears -between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the `err` -value when it runs. +to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value that `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the +value is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is +an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. +We’ll cover closures in more detail in [Chapter 13][ch13]. For +now, you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of +the `Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` +that we added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that +appears between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the +`err` value when it runs. We’ve added a new `use` line to bring `process` from the standard library into scope. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only two @@ -386,7 +386,7 @@ know that `Box` means the function will return a type that implements the `Error` trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type the return value will be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that may be of different types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short -for “dynamic.” +for *dynamic*. Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator, as we talked about in [Chapter 9][ch9-question-mark]. Rather than @@ -423,11 +423,11 @@ with `Config::build` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: ``` We use `if let` rather than `unwrap_or_else` to check whether `run` returns an -`Err` value and call `process::exit(1)` if it does. The `run` function doesn’t -return a value that we want to `unwrap` in the same way that `Config::build` -returns the `Config` instance. Because `run` returns `()` in the success case, -we only care about detecting an error, so we don’t need `unwrap_or_else` to -return the unwrapped value, which would only be `()`. +`Err` value and to call `process::exit(1)` if it does. The `run` function +doesn’t return a value that we want to `unwrap` in the same way that +`Config::build` returns the `Config` instance. Because `run` returns `()` in +the success case, we only care about detecting an error, so we don’t need +`unwrap_or_else` to return the unwrapped value, which would only be `()`. The bodies of the `if let` and the `unwrap_or_else` functions are the same in both cases: we print the error and exit. @@ -435,10 +435,10 @@ both cases: we print the error and exit. ### Splitting Code into a Library Crate Our `minigrep` project is looking good so far! Now we’ll split the -*src/main.rs* file and put some code into the *src/lib.rs* file. That way we +*src/main.rs* file and put some code into the *src/lib.rs* file. That way, we can test the code and have a *src/main.rs* file with fewer responsibilities. -Let’s move all the code that isn’t the `main` function from *src/main.rs* to +Let’s move all the code that isn’t in the `main` function from *src/main.rs* to *src/lib.rs*: * The `run` function definition @@ -476,8 +476,7 @@ binary crate in *src/main.rs*, as shown in Listing 12-14. We add a `use minigrep::Config` line to bring the `Config` type from the library crate into the binary crate’s scope, and we prefix the `run` function with our crate name. Now all the functionality should be connected and should -work. Run the program with `cargo run` and make sure everything works -correctly. +work. Run the program with `cargo run` and make sure everything works correctly. Whew! That was a lot of work, but we’ve set ourselves up for success in the future. Now it’s much easier to handle errors, and we’ve made the code more @@ -491,5 +490,5 @@ write some tests! [ch9-custom-types]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#creating-custom-types-for-validation [ch9-error-guidelines]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#guidelines-for-error-handling [ch9-result]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch17]: ch18-00-oop.html [ch9-question-mark]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html#a-shortcut-for-propagating-errors-the--operator diff --git a/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md b/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md index c4a435bc08..7034783d7c 100644 --- a/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md +++ b/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md @@ -6,21 +6,21 @@ for the core functionality of our code. We can call functions directly with various arguments and check return values without having to call our binary from the command line. -In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program -using the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: +In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program using +the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: 1. Write a test that fails and run it to make sure it fails for the reason you expect. 2. Write or modify just enough code to make the new test pass. -3. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests - continue to pass. +3. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests continue + to pass. 4. Repeat from step 1! Though it’s just one of many ways to write software, TDD can help drive code design. Writing the test before you write the code that makes the test pass helps to maintain high test coverage throughout the process. -We’ll test drive the implementation of the functionality that will actually do +We’ll test-drive the implementation of the functionality that will actually do the searching for the query string in the file contents and produce a list of lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called `search`. @@ -29,11 +29,11 @@ lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called Because we don’t need them anymore, let’s remove the `println!` statements from *src/lib.rs* and *src/main.rs* that we used to check the program’s behavior. -Then, in *src/lib.rs*, add a `tests` module with a test function, as we did in -[Chapter 11][ch11-anatomy]. The test function specifies the -behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and the -text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that contain -the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. +Then, in *src/lib.rs*, we’ll add a `tests` module with a test function, as we +did in [Chapter 11][ch11-anatomy]. The test function specifies +the behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and +the text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that +contain the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. @@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. This test searches for the string `"duct"`. The text we’re searching is three -lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (Note that the backslash after the +lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (note that the backslash after the opening double quote tells Rust not to put a newline character at the beginning of the contents of this string literal). We assert that the value returned from the `search` function contains only the line we expect. @@ -95,9 +95,9 @@ syntax. Other programming languages don’t require you to connect arguments to return values in the signature, but this practice will get easier over time. You might -want to compare this example with the [“Validating References with -Lifetimes”][validating-references-with-lifetimes] section in -Chapter 10. +want to compare this example with the examples in the [“Validating References +with Lifetimes”][validating-references-with-lifetimes] section +in Chapter 10. Now let’s run the test: @@ -112,19 +112,19 @@ Great, the test fails, exactly as we expected. Let’s get the test to pass! Currently, our test is failing because we always return an empty vector. To fix that and implement `search`, our program needs to follow these steps: -* Iterate through each line of the contents. -* Check whether the line contains our query string. -* If it does, add it to the list of values we’re returning. -* If it doesn’t, do nothing. -* Return the list of results that match. +1. Iterate through each line of the contents. +2. Check whether the line contains our query string. +3. If it does, add it to the list of values we’re returning. +4. If it doesn’t, do nothing. +5. Return the list of results that match. Let’s work through each step, starting with iterating through lines. #### Iterating Through Lines with the `lines` Method Rust has a helpful method to handle line-by-line iteration of strings, -conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note this -won’t compile yet. +conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note that +this won’t compile yet. @@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ of using an iterator in [Listing 3-5][ch3-iter], where we used a Next, we’ll check whether the current line contains our query string. Fortunately, strings have a helpful method named `contains` that does this for us! Add a call to the `contains` method in the `search` function, as shown in -Listing 12-18. Note this still won’t compile yet. +Listing 12-18. Note that this still won’t compile yet. @@ -154,8 +154,8 @@ Listing 12-18. Note this still won’t compile yet. -At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get it to compile, we need -to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function +At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get the code to compile, we +need to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function signature. #### Storing Matching Lines @@ -205,20 +205,20 @@ will print each line returned from `search`: We’re still using a `for` loop to return each line from `search` and print it. Now the entire program should work! Let’s try it out, first with a word that -should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem, “frog”: +should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem: *frog*. ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/output.txt}} ``` -Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like “body”: +Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like *body*: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/output.txt}} ``` And finally, let’s make sure that we don’t get any lines when we search for a -word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as “monomorphization”: +word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as *monomorphization*: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/output.txt}} diff --git a/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md b/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md index f050b5b479..45b2f1577f 100644 --- a/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md +++ b/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ tests, as shown in Listing 12-20. Note that we’ve edited the old test’s `contents` too. We’ve added a new line -with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital D that shouldn’t match the query +with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital *D* that shouldn’t match the query `"duct"` when we’re searching in a case-sensitive manner. Changing the old test in this way helps ensure that we don’t accidentally break the case-sensitive search functionality that we’ve already implemented. This test should pass now @@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ and should continue to pass as we work on the case-insensitive search. The new test for the case-*insensitive* search uses `"rUsT"` as its query. In the `search_case_insensitive` function we’re about to add, the query `"rUsT"` -should match the line containing `"Rust:"` with a capital R and match the line -`"Trust me."` even though both have different casing from the query. This is -our failing test, and it will fail to compile because we haven’t yet defined +should match the line containing `"Rust:"` with a capital *R* and match the +line `"Trust me."` even though both have different casing from the query. This +is our failing test, and it will fail to compile because we haven’t yet defined the `search_case_insensitive` function. Feel free to add a skeleton implementation that always returns an empty vector, similar to the way we did for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. @@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. The `search_case_insensitive` function, shown in Listing 12-21, will be almost the same as the `search` function. The only difference is that we’ll lowercase -the `query` and each `line` so whatever the case of the input arguments, +the `query` and each `line` so that whatever the case of the input arguments, they’ll be the same case when we check whether the line contains the query. @@ -55,8 +55,8 @@ they’ll be the same case when we check whether the line contains the query. -First, we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with -the same name. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so no +First we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with +the same name. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so that no matter whether the user’s query is `"rust"`, `"RUST"`, `"Rust"`, or `"rUsT"`, we’ll treat the query as if it were `"rust"` and be insensitive to the case. While `to_lowercase` will handle basic Unicode, it won’t be 100% accurate. If @@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ we were writing a real application, we’d want to do a bit more work here, but this section is about environment variables, not Unicode, so we’ll leave it at that here. -Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice, because calling +Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice because calling `to_lowercase` creates new data rather than referencing existing data. Say the query is `"rUsT"`, as an example: that string slice doesn’t contain a lowercase `u` or `t` for us to use, so we have to allocate a new `String` containing @@ -83,10 +83,10 @@ Let’s see if this implementation passes the tests: ``` Great! They passed. Now, let’s call the new `search_case_insensitive` function -from the `run` function. First, we’ll add a configuration option to the -`Config` struct to switch between case-sensitive and case-insensitive search. -Adding this field will cause compiler errors because we aren’t initializing -this field anywhere yet: +from the `run` function. First we’ll add a configuration option to the `Config` +struct to switch between case-sensitive and case-insensitive search. Adding +this field will cause compiler errors because we aren’t initializing this field +anywhere yet: Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ Listing 12-23. -Here, we create a new variable `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the +Here, we create a new variable, `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the `env::var` function and pass it the name of the `IGNORE_CASE` environment variable. The `env::var` function returns a `Result` that will be the successful `Ok` variant that contains the value of the environment variable if @@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ if the environment variable is not set. We’re using the `is_ok` method on the `Result` to check whether the environment variable is set, which means the program should do a case-insensitive search. If the `IGNORE_CASE` environment variable isn’t set to anything, `is_ok` will -return false and the program will perform a case-sensitive search. We don’t +return `false` and the program will perform a case-sensitive search. We don’t care about the *value* of the environment variable, just whether it’s set or unset, so we’re checking `is_ok` rather than using `unwrap`, `expect`, or any of the other methods we’ve seen on `Result`. @@ -141,16 +141,16 @@ We pass the value in the `ignore_case` variable to the `Config` instance so the `run` function can read that value and decide whether to call `search_case_insensitive` or `search`, as we implemented in Listing 12-22. -Let’s give it a try! First, we’ll run our program without the environment +Let’s give it a try! First we’ll run our program without the environment variable set and with the query `to`, which should match any line that contains -the word “to” in all lowercase: +the word *to* in all lowercase: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt}} ``` -Looks like that still works! Now, let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` -set to `1` but with the same query `to`. +Looks like that still works! Now let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` set +to `1` but with the same query *to*: ```console $ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run -- to poem.txt @@ -163,14 +163,14 @@ run the program as separate commands: PS> $Env:IGNORE_CASE=1; cargo run -- to poem.txt ``` -This will make `IGNORE_CASE` persist for the remainder of your shell -session. It can be unset with the `Remove-Item` cmdlet: +This will make `IGNORE_CASE` persist for the remainder of your shell session. +It can be unset with the `Remove-Item` cmdlet: ```console PS> Remove-Item Env:IGNORE_CASE ``` -We should get lines that contain “to” that might have uppercase letters: +We should get lines that contain *to* that might have uppercase letters: + +```text +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason is that async code needs a *runtime*: a Rust crate which manages the +details of executing asynchronous code. A program's `main` function can +initialize a runtime, but it is not a runtime itself. (We will see more about +why this is a bit later.) Every async program in Rust has at least one place +where it sets up a runtime and executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a +small amount of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which +provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality +like file or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we will use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we will be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we will pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. + ++ + + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs:run}} +``` + + + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: + +```console +{{#include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/output.txt}} +``` + +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Pick a couple URLs and run the command line tool. You may discover that some +sites are reliably faster than others, while in other cases which site “wins” +varies from run to run. Let’s briefly turn our attention back to how futures +work. + +Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it is ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote something like this: + +```rust +# extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + GetAwaitPoint { + url: &'a str, + }, + TextAwaitPoint { + response: trpl::Response, + }, +} +``` + +Writing that out by hand would be tedious and error-prone, especially when +making changes to code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the +state machine data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: +yep, the normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. +Happily, the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error +messages. We will work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to *executors* +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but main is the starting point for the program! Instead, we use the `trpl::run` +function, which sets up a runtime and runs the future returned by `page_title` +until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you *can* write an async main +> function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn +> main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title_for` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing it. + ++ + + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + + + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` with both of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we have not yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures `trpl::race`, which +returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes first. + +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it does not make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we have not seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat like a `Result`, in that it has +two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or failure +baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate “one or the +other”. + +```rust +enum Either { + Left(A), + Right(B) +} +``` + +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +*that* one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title_for` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now, which we could extend in a bunch +of different directions. More importantly, you have learned the basics of +working with futures, so we can now dig into even more of the things we can *do* +with async. + +{{#quiz ../quizzes/async-01-futures-and-syntax.toml}} + +[impl-trait]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-as-parameters +[iterators-lazy]: ch13-02-iterators.html +<!-- TODO: map source link version to version of Rust? --> +[crate-source]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl +[futures-crate]: https://crates.io/crates/futures +[tokio]: https://tokio.rs diff --git a/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..82e846dca2 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,387 @@ +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we will apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Since we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we will focus on what is different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in Chapter 16 was counting up on two separate threads. +Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function +which looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function +which is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together +to implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +<Listing number="17-6" caption="Using `spawn_task` to count with two" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. + +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we will often skip it +> just like we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! + +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `.await` after the `sleep` calls. + +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` + +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. + +<Listing number="17-7" caption="Using `.await` with a join handle to run a task to completion" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs:handle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This updated version runs till *both* loops finish. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `.await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we did not need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we do not even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the `JoinHandle` type +returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` function is +similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces a single new +future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the futures you passed +in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use `trpl::join` to wait for +both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await `fut1` and `fut2`, but +instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore the output, because +it is just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +<Listing number="17-8" caption="Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:join}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +Here, you will see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it is still possible!) Runtimes do not have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +* Await each async block immediately after defining it. +* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case *before* running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we will use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We will take a +slightly different path than we did in Chapter 16, to illustrate some of the key +differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9, +we will begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a separate task like +we spawned a separate thread. + +<Listing number="17-9" caption="Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:channel}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async +version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it +uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method +produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now +we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we do not have +to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv` +call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we do +not await the `send` call, because it does not block. It does not need to, +because the channel we are sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there is no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-10" caption="Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel and sleeping with an `.await` between each message" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs:many-messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we will +generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust does not yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in Chapter 6. The +loop will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to +match the value. + +<!-- TODO: update text in ch. 19 to account for our having introduced this. --> + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just like we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `.await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There is only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There is still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the +`.await` points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just like in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we are +trying *not* to do. + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-11" caption="Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and awaiting the futures for those blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures + passed to it have completed. +* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +* The `rx` future will not complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `while let` loop will not end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +* We do not call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` will not be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +* The block cannot end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that does not +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx`, but if +we could move `tx` into that async block, it would be dropped once that block +ends. In Chapter 13, we learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and +in Chapter 16, we saw that we often need to use move data into closures when +working with threads. The same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the +`move` keyword works with async blocks just like it does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. + +<Listing number="17-12" caption="A working example of sending and receiving messages between futures which correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs:with-move}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. They key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. + +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we will +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. + +<Listing number="17-13" caption="Using multiple producers with async blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` + +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. + +{{#quiz ../quizzes/async-02-concurrency-with-async.toml}} + +[streams]: ch17-05-streams.html diff --git a/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..208e9f7966 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md @@ -0,0 +1,602 @@ +## Working With Any Number of Futures + +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: + +<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we will need to iterate over and +join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in Chapter 13, so +it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and +replace `join!` with `join_all`. + +<Listing number="17-15" caption="Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all`"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this does not compile. Instead, we get this error: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/ +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + + +```text +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:43:37 + | +8 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | _______________________- +9 | | let vals = vec![ +10 | | String::from("hi"), +11 | | String::from("from"), +... | +19 | | } +20 | | }; + | |_________- the expected `async` block +21 | +22 | let rx_fut = async { + | ______________________- +23 | | while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { +24 | | println!("received '{value}'"); +25 | | } +26 | | }; + | |_________- the found `async` block +... +43 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:22:22: 26:10}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them returns anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You cannot put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in [“Returning +Errors from the run function”][dyn] in Chapter 12. (We will cover trait objects +in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each of the +anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, since all of them +implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In Chapter 8, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a +> `Vec`: using an enum to represent each of the different types which can +> appear in the vector. We cannot do that here, though. For one thing, we have +> no way to name the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, +> the reason we reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be +> able to work with a dynamic collection of futures where we do not know what +> they will all be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. + +<Listing number="17-16" caption="Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this still does not compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly providing the type of `futures` as a trait +object (Listing 17-17). + +<Listing number="17-17" caption="Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: + +* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. + +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17 +cargo build +copy *only* the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:24 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:9 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we will dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. + +<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` + +Phew! + +There is a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we are only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. + +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. + +<Listing number="17-19" caption="Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output = +&str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`. + +<Listing number="17-20" caption="Three futures with distinct types" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! + +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. + +### Racing futures + +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of like racing +one future against another. This operation is often named `race` for exactly +that reason. + +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function cannot, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. + +In Listing 17-21, we use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and `fast`, +against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, pauses for +some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints another +message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for one of +them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) Note +that unlike the first time we used `race` back in [Our First Async +Program][async-program], we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, +because all of the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +<Listing number="17-21" caption="Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That is because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they are +passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we are using is +fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `.await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from [Our First Async Program][async-program] that at each await point, +Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to another one if the +future being awaited is not ready. The inverse is also true: Rust *only* pauses +async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await point. Everything +between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you will need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +<Listing number="17-22" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:slow}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations. + +<Listing number="17-23" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:slow-futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, you will see this output: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/ +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` + +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. There +is no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all of +its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does all +of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` future +completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow tasks, we +need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That means we need +something we can await! + +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? + +<Listing number="17-24" caption="Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24 +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` + +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. + +We do not really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-25" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:yields}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers like the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, like the one in +Listing 17-26. (This is not an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-26" caption="Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has both the power to +determine when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore +also has the responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based +embedded operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! + +In real-world code, you will not usually be alternating function calls with +await points on every single line, of course. While yielding control like this +is relatively inexpensive, it is not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it is better +for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, though! + +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions + +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When we +are done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up yet +further async abstractions. + +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +<Listing number="17-27" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: + +* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. + +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. + +<!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. --> + +<Listing number="17-28" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs:declaration}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. + +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. + +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. + +<Listing number="17-29" caption="Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs:implementation}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +```text +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same approach +to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things like network +calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `.await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros like `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and so +on. You will only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We have now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we will look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + + +{{#quiz ../quizzes/async-03-more-futures.toml}} + +[collections]: ch08-01-vectors.html#using-an-enum-to-store-multiple-types +[dyn]: ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html +[async-program]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program diff --git a/src/ch17-04-streams.md b/src/ch17-04-streams.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c13017be77 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-04-streams.md @@ -0,0 +1,449 @@ +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our +async channel in the [“Message Passing”][17-02-messages] earlier in the chapter. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*. + +A sequence of items is something we have seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in Chapter 13, but there are two differences between iterators +and the async channel receiver. The first difference is the element of time: +iterators are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The +second difference is the API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call +its synchronous `next` method. With a `trpl::Receiver`, we call an asynchronous +`recv` method instead, but these APIs otherwise feel very similar. + +That similarity is not a coincidence. A stream is like an asynchronous form of +iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive messages, +though, a general-purpose stream API needs to be much more general: it will just +provide the next item like `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. In fact, this is +roughly how it works in Rust, so we can actually create a stream from any +iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by calling its `next` +method, and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +<Listing number="17-30" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/src/main.rs:stream}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop + +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it does not compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. + +<!-- TODO: fix up the path here? --> +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/chapter-17-async-await/listing-17-30 +cargo build +copy only the error output +--> + +```console +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:8:40 + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to '/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/target/debug/deps/async_await-bbd5bb8f6851cb5f.long-type-18426562901668632191.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +1 + use trpl::StreamExt; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. +``` + +As the output suggests, the problem is that we need the right trait in scope to +be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion so far, you might +reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need *here* is actually +`StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a common pattern in +the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +You might be wondering why `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and for that matter +whether there is a `Stream` type at all. Briefly, the answer is that throughout +the Rust ecosystem, the `Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which +effectively combines the `Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait +supplies a higher-level set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` +method and also many other utility methods like those from `Iterator`. We will +return to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of +the chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +All we need to do here is add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, as in +Listing 17-31. + +<Listing number="17-31" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With all those pieces put together, things work the way we want! What is more, +now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility methods, +just like with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the `filter` +method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +<Listing number="17-32" caption="Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Of course, this is not very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Lots of things are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, similar to what we might +see from a WebSocket or other real-time communication protocols. In Listing +17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns `impl Stream<Item = +String>`. For its implementation, we create an async channel, loop over the +first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +<Listing number="17-33" caption="Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-33/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` + +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams, like adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. + +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a future which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +<Listing number="17-34" caption="Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs:timeout}} +``` + +</Listing> + +However, since there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. + +<Listing number="17-35" caption="Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs:messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we cannot make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we would return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = +String>>` instead of just a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to +await `get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: +everything in a given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* +futures. Awaiting `get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, +including sleeping between sending each message, before returning the receiver +stream. As a result, the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays +in the stream itself: the delays would all happen before the stream was even +available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` like this works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without* +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/listing-17-35 +cargo run +copy only the program output, *not* the compiler output +--> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` + +The timeout does not prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message does not arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, we +are going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create a an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Since this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. + +<Listing number="17-36" caption="Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs:intervals}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this does not block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. + +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method. +Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over `messages` (Listing +17-37). + +<Listing number="17-37" caption="Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable, +because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this +call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while +let` loop, but we will come back to that after fixing this.) The two streams +have different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl +Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which implements `Stream` +for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has the type `impl +Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to transform one of +them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework with the `intervals` stream, since `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Since we do not actually +*want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout which is +longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a 10-second +timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make `stream` +mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate through the +stream, and pin it so that it is safe to do so. + +<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. --> + +<Listing number="17-38" caption="Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + + +That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You will +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it does not overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, since that is in the same ballpark as how often +our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. + +<Listing number="17-39" caption="Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs:throttle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now when we run the program, it stop after pulling twenty items from the stream, +and the intervals do not overwhelm the messages. We also do not get `Interval: +100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead simply get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can* produce +an event every millisecond. That is because the `throttle` call produces a new +stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original stream only gets +polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We do not have a bunch +of unhandled interval messages we are simply choosing to ignore. Instead, we +never produce those interval messages in the first place! This is the inherent +“laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to choose our +performance characteristics. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/listing-17-39 +cargo run +copy and paste only the program output +--> + +```text +Interval #1 +Message: 'a' +Interval #2 +Interval #3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval #4 +Message: 'b' +Interval #5 +Message: 'c' +Interval #6 +Interval #7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval #8 +Message: 'd' +Interval #9 +Message: 'e' +Interval #10 +Interval #11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval #12 +``` + +There is one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that is just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up till now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we do not try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +<Listing number="17-40" caption="Handling errors and shutting down the loops"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs:errors}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That is a good note to turn to our final section and wrap up this walk through +async in Rust, by discussing how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads +relate to each other, and how you can use them together. + +{{#quiz ../quizzes/async-04-streams.toml}} + + +[17-02-messages]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html#message-passing diff --git a/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..291e8d5aa8 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,393 @@ +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we have used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we have avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you will hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we will dig down *enough* further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation! + + +### Future + +Back in [Futures and the Async Syntax][futures-syntax], we noted that `Future` +is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how it works. Here is how +Rust defines a `Future`: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we have +not seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. + +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We will talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +```rust +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending +} +``` + +This `Poll` type is a lot like an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. + +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you call `.await`, Rust compiles that to code which calls +`poll`, kind of (although not exactly <!-- TODO: describe `IntoFuture`? -->) +like this: + +```rust,ignore +match hello("async").poll() { + Ready(_) => { + // We’re done! + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? + } +} +``` + +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: + +```rust,ignore +let hello_fut = hello("async"); +loop { + match hello_fut.poll() { + Ready(_) => { + break; + } + Pending => { + // continue + } + } +} +``` + +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `.await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust needs +makes sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work +on this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the [Counting][counting] section) of waiting on +`rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it polls it. In our +initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the future until it is +ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel closes. With our +deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically `Future::poll`, we +can see how that works. The runtime knows the future is not ready when it +returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future is ready and +advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime *polls* each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +<!-- TODO: get a *very* careful technical review of this section! --> + +When we introduced the idea of pinning, while working on Listing 17-17, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18 +cargo build +copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values but also us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct in turn is generic over +a type `F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Finally, +directly awaiting a Future requires that the future in question implement the +`Unpin` trait. That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little +further into how the `Future` type actually works, in particular around +*pinning*. + +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`, focusing specifically on the +`poll` method’s `self` type: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +This is the first time we have seen a method where `self` has a type annotation +like this. When we specify the type of `self` like this, we are telling Rust +what type `self` must be to call this method. These kinds of type annotations +for `self` are similar to those for other function parameters, but with the +restriction that the type annotation has to be the type on which the method is +implemented, or a reference or smart pointer to that type, or a `Pin` wrapping a +reference to that type. We will see more on this syntax in Chapter 18. For now, +it is enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to check whether it is +`Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference to the type, which is +wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it is like the `Box`, `Rc`, and other +smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. Unlike +those, however, `Pin` only works with *other pointer types* like reference (`&` +and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, `Pin` +works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which we +covered in Chapter 15. You can think of this restriction as equivalent to only +working with pointers, though, since implementing `Deref` or `DerefMut` means +your type behaves like a pointer type. `Pin` is also not a pointer itself, and +it does not have any behavior of its own like the ref counting of `Rc` or `Arc`. +It is purely a tool the compiler can use to uphold the relevant guarantees, by +wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `.await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this +starts to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of +`Unpin`, not `Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, +and why does `Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In [Our First Async Program][first-async], we described how a series of await +points in a future get compiled into a state machine—and noted how the compiler +helps make sure that state machine follows all of Rust’s normal rules around +safety, including borrowing and ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what +data is needed between each await point and the next await point or the end of +the async block. It then creates a corresponding variant in the state machine it +creates. Each variant gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in +that section of the source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by +getting a mutable or immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to +`join_all`—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant. Any object which has a reference +to itself is unsafe to move, though, because references always point to the +actual memory address of the thing they refer to. If you move the data structure +itself, you *have* to update any references to it, or they will be left pointing +to the old location. + +In principle, you could make the Rust compiler try to update every reference to +an object every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of +performance overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references +that need updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure +in question *does not move in memory*, we do not have to update any references. +And this is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker already guarantees: you cannot +move an item which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we *pin* a +value by wrapping a pointer to it in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, if you +have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* the +`Box` pointer. In fact, the pinned box pointer can move around freely. Remember: +we care about making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its +place. If a pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same +place, there is no problem. + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to be +behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values like numbers and booleans do not have any +internal structure like that, so they are obviously safe. Neither do most types +you normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, does not have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you would have to do +everything via Pin’s safe but restrictive APIs, even though a `Vec<String>` is +always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We need a way to +tell the compiler that it is actually just fine to move items around in cases +like these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, like `Send` and `Sync`, which we saw in Chapter 16. +Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. They exist only to +tell the compiler that it is safe to use the type which implements a given trait +in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler that a given type does +*not* need to uphold any particular guarantees about whether the value in +question can be moved. + +Just like `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically for +all types where it can prove it is safe. Implementing `Unpin` manually is unsafe +because it requires *you* to uphold all the guarantees which make `Pin` and +`Unpin` safe yourself for a type with internal references. In practice, this is +a very rare thing to implement yourself! + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call. +We originally tried to move the futures produced by an async blocks into a +`Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we have seen, those futures may have +internal references, so they do not implement `Unpin`. They need to be pinned, +and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, confident that the +underlying data in the futures will *not* be moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you are building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see them, though, now you will know what to do! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they are self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up *most* commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specific mechanics for how `Pin` and `Unpin` work under the hood are +> covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so if you would +> like to understand them more deeply, that is a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official [_Asynchronous Programming in Rust_][async-book] book has +> you covered: +> +> - [Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks][under-the-hood] +> - [Chapter 4: Pinning][pinning]. + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are like asynchronous iterators. Unlike `Iterator` +and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the standard library +as of the time of writing,<!-- TODO: verify before press time! --> but there +*is* a very common definition used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; +} +``` + +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is like `Iterator`: there may be zero to many of +these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` (even if it +the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls like `Future::poll` and produces a sequence of items +like `Iterator::next`. Its return type combines `Poll`with `Option`. The outer +type is `Poll`, since it has to be checked for readiness, just like a future. +The inner type is `Option`, since it needs to signal whether there are more +messages, just like an iterator. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it is part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we did not use +`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +<!-- +TODO: update this if/when tokio/etc. update their MSRV and switch to using async functions +in traits, since the lack thereof is the reason they do not yet have this. +--> + +> Note: The actual definition we will use looks slightly different than this, +> because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet support using async +> functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ```rust,ignore +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is just a simple `struct` which implements `Future` and gives +> a way to name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, +> so that `.await` can work with this! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but they are separated out so that the community can +iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you *only* have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +[futures-syntax]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html +[counting]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html +[async-book]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/ +[under-the-hood]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html +[pinning]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html +[first-async]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! + +{{#quiz ../quizzes/async-05-traits-for-async.toml}} diff --git a/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a10b391bf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +# Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the previous chapter, threads provide one approach to concurrency. +We have seen another approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with +futures and streams. You might be wondering why you would choose one or the +other. The answer is: it depends! And in many cases, it is not threads *or* +async but rather threads *and* async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems do not have an OS at all, so they also do not +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations do not require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is a lot like a thread—but instead of being managed by the operating system, it +is managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. + +<Listing number="17-41" caption="Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs for the `get_intervals` function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs:threads}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What is more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +However, there is a significant difference between these two approaches behave, +although we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We +could spawn hundreds of thousands or even millions of async tasks on any modern +personal computer. If we tried to do that with threads, we would literally run +out of memory! + +However, there is a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is +possible both *between* and *within* tasks. In that regard, tasks are kind of +like lightweight, runtime-managed threads with added capabilities that come from +being managed by a runtime instead of by the operating system. Futures are an +even more granular unit of concurrency, where each future may represent a tree +of other futures. That is, the runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, +and tasks manage futures. + +However, this does not mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any +more than that threads are always better than tasks. + +On the one hand, concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming +model than concurrency with `async`. Threads are somewhat “fire and forget,” +they have no native equivalent to a future, so they simply run to completion, +without interruption except by the operating system itself. That is, they have +no *intra-task concurrency* like futures can. Threads in Rust also have no +mechanisms for cancellation—a subject we have not covered in depth in this +chapter, but which is implicit in the fact that whenever we ended a future, its +state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations make threads harder to compose than futures. It is much more +difficult, for example, to build something like the `timeout` we built in +[“Building Our Own Async Abstractions”][combining-futures], or the `throttle` +method we used with streams in [“Composing Streams”][streams]. The fact that +futures are richer data structures means they *can* be composed together more +naturally, as we have seen. + +Tasks then give *additional* control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group them. And it turns out that threads and tasks often work very +well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved around +between threads. We have not mentioned it up until now, but under the hood the +`Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and `spawn_task` +functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an approach called +*work stealing* to transparently move tasks around between threads based on the +current utilization of the threads, with the aim of improving the overall +performance of the system. To build that actually requires threads *and* tasks, +and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +- If the task is *very parallelizable*, like processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +- If the task is *very concurrent*, like handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you do not have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-TODO shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. + +<!-- TODO: extract into a listing file! --> + +<Listing number="17-42" caption="Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just like we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just like in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. + +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, since video encoding is +compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an async +channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! + +## Summary + +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. + +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. + +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. + + +[combining-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#building-our-own-async-abstractions +[streams]: ch17-04-streams.html#composing-streams diff --git a/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/src/ch18-00-oop.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch17-00-oop.md rename to src/ch18-00-oop.md diff --git a/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md rename to src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md diff --git a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md rename to src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md index ee9b3f7357..6f6bf59c5a 100644 --- a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md @@ -344,4 +344,4 @@ support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. [performance-of-code-using-generics]: ch10-01-syntax.html#performance-of-code-using-generics -[dynamically-sized]: ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait +[dynamically-sized]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait diff --git a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md rename to src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 3155f7a12c..09421873d6 100644 --- a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -515,4 +515,4 @@ haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.toml}} [more-info-than-rustc]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#cases-in-which-you-have-more-information-than-the-compiler -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/src/ch17-04-inventory.md b/src/ch18-04-inventory.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch17-04-inventory.md rename to src/ch18-04-inventory.md diff --git a/src/ch17-05-design-challenge.md b/src/ch18-05-design-challenge.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch17-05-design-challenge.md rename to src/ch18-05-design-challenge.md diff --git a/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/src/ch19-00-patterns.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch18-00-patterns.md rename to src/ch19-00-patterns.md diff --git a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md rename to src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index 5f26046828..9491081d4b 100644 --- a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -249,4 +249,4 @@ these two concepts next. {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.toml}} [ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: -ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern +ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern diff --git a/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/src/ch19-02-refutability.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch18-02-refutability.md rename to src/ch19-02-refutability.md diff --git a/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md rename to src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md diff --git a/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md rename to src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md diff --git a/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md rename to src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md diff --git a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md rename to src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md index 6d956461e0..0464babc95 100644 --- a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -461,7 +461,7 @@ switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type syste {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch19-03-advanced-traits.toml}} -[newtype]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +[newtype]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types [implementing-a-trait-on-a-type]: ch10-02-traits.html#implementing-a-trait-on-a-type [traits-defining-shared-behavior]: diff --git a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md similarity index 98% rename from src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md rename to src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md index 3fe89c3ea0..18111afc4f 100644 --- a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md @@ -290,10 +290,10 @@ Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch19-04-advanced-types.toml}} [encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]: -ch17-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details +ch18-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details [string-slices]: ch04-04-slices.html#string-slices [the-match-control-flow-operator]: ch06-02-match.html#the-match-control-flow-operator [using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types -[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types diff --git a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md similarity index 97% rename from src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md rename to src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index dad7268d6c..75353fa4a5 100644 --- a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -118,14 +118,14 @@ We can use a trait object: This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to the section [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- -ignore --> in Chapter 17. +ignore --> in Chapter 18. Next, let’s look at macros! {{#quiz ../quizzes/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.toml}} [advanced-traits]: -ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits +ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits [enum-values]: ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html#enum-values [using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/src/ch20-06-macros.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch19-06-macros.md rename to src/ch20-06-macros.md diff --git a/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md rename to src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md diff --git a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md rename to src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md index 9e7fe865b1..b474d926fe 100644 --- a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md @@ -143,8 +143,8 @@ connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass the `stream` to it. In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that -wraps a mutable reference to the `stream`. `BufReader` adds buffering by -managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. +wraps a reference to the `stream`. `BufReader` adds buffering by managing calls +to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these diff --git a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md rename to src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md index 80022bb329..62572ef92e 100644 --- a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md @@ -690,7 +690,7 @@ the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration of the call to `job()`, meaning other workers cannot receive jobs. [creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: -ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases +ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases [integer-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#integer-types [fn-traits]: ch13-01-closures.html#moving-captured-values-out-of-the-closure-and-the-fn-traits diff --git a/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md rename to src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-01.svg b/src/img/trpl17-01.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..483bf7216d --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-01.svg @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> +<!-- Generated by graphviz version 12.1.0 (20240811.2233) + --> +<!-- Pages: 1 --> +<svg + viewBox="0.00 0.00 2884 775.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> +<g id="graph0" class="graph" transform="scale(4.16667 4.16667) rotate(0) translate(4 182)"> +<polygon fill="white" stroke="none" points="-4,4 -4,-182 688.21,-182 688.21,4 -4,4"/> +<g id="clust1" class="cluster"> +<title>cluster_task_a + +Task A + + +cluster_task_b + +Task B + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +A1->B1 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +A2->B2 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +A4->B3 + + + + + + + +B1->A2 + + + + + + +B2->A3 + + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-02.svg b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b2df090c23 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_ColleagueB + +Task 2 + + +cluster_ColleagueA + +Task 1 + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +B1->B2 + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +B2->B3 + + + + + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + +A1->A2 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + +A2->A3 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + diff --git a/src/title-page.md b/src/title-page.md index c467287252..dd95190f60 100644 --- a/src/title-page.md +++ b/src/title-page.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ *(and with experimental modifications!)* -This version of the text assumes you’re using Rust 1.79.0 (released 2024-06-13) +This version of the text assumes you’re using Rust 1.81.0 (released 2024-09-04) or later. See the [“Installation” section of Chapter 1][install] to install or update Rust. Run `rustc --version` to see your Rust version. diff --git a/tests/integration/main.rs b/tests/integration/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 6944fae693..0000000000 --- a/tests/integration/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ -use assert_cmd::Command; - -#[test] -fn supports_html_renderer() { - let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME")) - .unwrap() - .args(["supports", "html"]) - .ok(); - assert!(cmd.is_ok()); -} - -#[test] -fn errors_for_other_renderers() { - let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME")) - .unwrap() - .args(["supports", "total-nonsense"]) - .ok(); - assert!(cmd.is_err()); -} - -// It would be nice to add an actual fixture for an mdbook, but doing *that* is -// going to be a bit of a pain, and what I have should cover it for now. diff --git a/tools/generate-preview.sh b/tools/generate-preview.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000000..a5d9022b9e --- /dev/null +++ b/tools/generate-preview.sh @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env bash + +mdbook build +cp ./tools/preview-robots.txt ./book/robots.txt +ghp-import -m "rebuild GitHub Pages from generated-book" book +git push origin gh-pages diff --git a/tools/preview-robots.txt b/tools/preview-robots.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f53798bb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/tools/preview-robots.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +User-agent: * +Disallow: /