diff --git a/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Runtime.swift b/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Runtime.swift
index 091395ae..175080c9 100644
--- a/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Runtime.swift
+++ b/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Runtime.swift
@@ -115,9 +115,14 @@ public final class Runtime {
 
         let workReportHashes = block.extrinsic.reports.guarantees.map(\.workReport.packageSpecification.workPackageHash)
 
+        let accumulationResult = Data32() // TODO: calculate accumulation result
+
+        var mmr = history.items.last?.mmr ?? .init([])
+        mmr.append(accumulationResult, hasher: Keccak.self)
+
         let newItem = try RecentHistory.HistoryItem(
             headerHash: block.header.parentHash,
-            mmrRoots: [], // TODO: update MMR roots
+            mmr: mmr,
             stateRoot: Data32(), // empty and will be updated upon next block
             workReportHashes: ConfigLimitedSizeArray(config: config, array: workReportHashes)
         )
diff --git a/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Types/RecentHistory.swift b/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Types/RecentHistory.swift
index ae0b4843..fc76ac0f 100644
--- a/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Types/RecentHistory.swift
+++ b/Blockchain/Sources/Blockchain/Types/RecentHistory.swift
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ public struct RecentHistory: Sendable, Equatable, Codable {
         public var headerHash: Data32
 
         // b: accumulation-result mmr
-        public var mmrRoots: [Data32]
+        public var mmr: MMR
 
         // s
         public var stateRoot: Data32
@@ -17,12 +17,12 @@ public struct RecentHistory: Sendable, Equatable, Codable {
 
         public init(
             headerHash: Data32,
-            mmrRoots: [Data32],
+            mmr: MMR,
             stateRoot: Data32,
             workReportHashes: ConfigLimitedSizeArray<Data32, ProtocolConfig.Int0, ProtocolConfig.TotalNumberOfCores>
         ) {
             self.headerHash = headerHash
-            self.mmrRoots = mmrRoots
+            self.mmr = mmr
             self.stateRoot = stateRoot
             self.workReportHashes = workReportHashes
         }
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Either.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Either.swift
index c1b362ba..a89f1616 100644
--- a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Either.swift
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Either.swift
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
-public enum Either<A, B> {
-    case left(A)
-    case right(B)
+public enum Either<Left, Right> {
+    case left(Left)
+    case right(Right)
 }
 
-extension Either: Equatable where A: Equatable, B: Equatable {}
+extension Either: Equatable where Left: Equatable, Right: Equatable {}
 
-extension Either: Sendable where A: Sendable, B: Sendable {}
+extension Either: Sendable where Left: Sendable, Right: Sendable {}
 
-extension Either: CustomStringConvertible where A: CustomStringConvertible, B: CustomStringConvertible {
+extension Either: CustomStringConvertible where Left: CustomStringConvertible, Right: CustomStringConvertible {
     public var description: String {
         switch self {
         case let .left(a):
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ extension Either: CustomStringConvertible where A: CustomStringConvertible, B: C
     }
 }
 
-extension Either: Codable where A: Codable, B: Codable {
+extension Either: Codable where Left: Codable, Right: Codable {
     enum CodingKeys: String, CodingKey {
         case left
         case right
@@ -52,10 +52,10 @@ extension Either: Codable where A: Codable, B: Codable {
             let variant = try container.decode(UInt8.self)
             switch variant {
             case 0:
-                let a = try container.decode(A.self)
+                let a = try container.decode(Left.self)
                 self = .left(a)
             case 1:
-                let b = try container.decode(B.self)
+                let b = try container.decode(Right.self)
                 self = .right(b)
             default:
                 throw DecodingError.dataCorrupted(
@@ -68,10 +68,10 @@ extension Either: Codable where A: Codable, B: Codable {
         } else {
             let container = try decoder.container(keyedBy: CodingKeys.self)
             if container.contains(.left) {
-                let a = try container.decode(A.self, forKey: .left)
+                let a = try container.decode(Left.self, forKey: .left)
                 self = .left(a)
             } else if container.contains(.right) {
-                let b = try container.decode(B.self, forKey: .right)
+                let b = try container.decode(Right.self, forKey: .right)
                 self = .right(b)
             } else {
                 throw DecodingError.dataCorrupted(
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Array+Utils.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Array+Utils.swift
similarity index 100%
rename from Utils/Sources/Utils/Array+Utils.swift
rename to Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Array+Utils.swift
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Collection+Utils.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Collection+Utils.swift
similarity index 100%
rename from Utils/Sources/Utils/Collection+Utils.swift
rename to Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Collection+Utils.swift
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Data+Utils.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Data+Utils.swift
similarity index 100%
rename from Utils/Sources/Utils/Data+Utils.swift
rename to Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Data+Utils.swift
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Result+Utils.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Result+Utils.swift
similarity index 100%
rename from Utils/Sources/Utils/Result+Utils.swift
rename to Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/Result+Utils.swift
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/UnsignedInteger+Utils.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/UnsignedInteger+Utils.swift
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..3747d686
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Extensions/UnsignedInteger+Utils.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+extension FixedWidthInteger {
+    /// Return the next power of two that is equal or greater than self.
+    /// Returns nil if self is 0 or the next power of two is greater than `Self.max`.
+    public var nextPowerOfTwo: Self? {
+        guard self > 0 else { return nil }
+        let leadingZeroBitCount = (self - 1).leadingZeroBitCount
+        guard leadingZeroBitCount > 0 else { return nil }
+        return 1 << (bitWidth - leadingZeroBitCount)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Blake2b256.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Blake2b256.swift
index fcf5cc45..dad617bc 100644
--- a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Blake2b256.swift
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Blake2b256.swift
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 import Blake2
 import Foundation
 
-public struct Blake2b256: ~Copyable, Hashing {
+public struct Blake2b256: /* ~Copyable, */ Hashing {
     private var hasher: Blake2b
 
     public init() {
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Hasher.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Hasher.swift
deleted file mode 100644
index 455ef1a0..00000000
--- a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Hasher.swift
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-import Blake2
-
-public protocol Hashing: ~Copyable {
-    init()
-    mutating func update(_ data: some DataPtrRepresentable)
-    consuming func finalize() -> Data32
-}
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Hashing.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Hashing.swift
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0d0bbeea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Hashing.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+import Blake2
+import Foundation
+
+public typealias DataPtrRepresentable = Blake2.DataPtrRepresentable
+
+// Waiting for NoncopyableGenerics to be available
+public protocol Hashing /*: ~Copyable */ {
+    init()
+    mutating func update(_ data: some DataPtrRepresentable)
+    consuming func finalize() -> Data32
+}
+
+extension Hashing {
+    public static func hash(data: some DataPtrRepresentable) -> Data32 {
+        var hasher = Self()
+        hasher.update(data)
+        return hasher.finalize()
+    }
+}
+
+extension FixedSizeData: DataPtrRepresentable {
+    public typealias Ptr = UnsafeRawBufferPointer
+
+    public func withPtr<R>(
+        cb: (UnsafeRawBufferPointer) throws -> R
+    ) rethrows -> R {
+        try data.withUnsafeBytes(cb)
+    }
+}
+
+extension Either: DataPtrRepresentable, PtrRepresentable where Left: DataPtrRepresentable, Right: DataPtrRepresentable,
+    Left.Ptr == Right.Ptr
+{
+    public typealias Ptr = Left.Ptr
+
+    public func withPtr<R>(
+        cb: (Left.Ptr) throws -> R
+    ) rethrows -> R {
+        switch self {
+        case let .left(left):
+            try left.withPtr(cb: cb)
+        case let .right(right):
+            try right.withPtr(cb: cb)
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Keccak.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Keccak.swift
index a71862de..595f5cb7 100644
--- a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Keccak.swift
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Hashing/Keccak.swift
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ import Blake2
 import Foundation
 import sha3_iuf
 
-public struct Keccak: ~Copyable, Hashing {
+public struct Keccak: /* ~Copyable, */ Hashing {
     private var ctx: sha3_context = .init()
 
     public init() {
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/MaybeEither.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/MaybeEither.swift
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..3828182e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/MaybeEither.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+public struct MaybeEither<Left, Right> {
+    public var value: Either<Left, Right>
+
+    public init(_ value: Either<Left, Right>) {
+        self.value = value
+    }
+
+    public init(left value: Left) {
+        self.value = .left(value)
+    }
+
+    public init(right value: Right) {
+        self.value = .right(value)
+    }
+}
+
+extension MaybeEither where Left == Right {
+    typealias Unwrapped = Left
+    public var unwrapped: Left {
+        switch value {
+        case let .left(left):
+            left
+        case let .right(right):
+            right
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/MMR.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/MMR.swift
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..109aa586
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/MMR.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+// TODO: add tests
+// Merkle Mountain Range
+public struct MMR: Sendable, Equatable, Codable {
+    public var peaks: [Data32?]
+
+    public init(_ peaks: [Data32?]) {
+        self.peaks = peaks
+    }
+
+    public mutating func append(_ data: Data32, hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self) {
+        append(data, at: 0, hasher: hasher)
+    }
+
+    private mutating func append(_ data: Data32, at index: Int, hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self) {
+        if index >= peaks.count {
+            peaks.append(data)
+        } else if let current = peaks[index] {
+            var hash = hasher.init()
+            hash.update(current)
+            hash.update(data)
+            peaks[index] = nil
+            append(hash.finalize(), at: index + 1, hasher: hasher)
+        } else {
+            peaks[index] = data
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/Merklization.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/Merklization.swift
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..2f507395
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/Merklization.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+import Foundation
+
+// TODO: add tests
+public enum Merklization {
+    // roundup of half
+    private static func half(_ i: Int) -> Int {
+        (i + 1) / 2
+    }
+
+    private static func binaryMerklizeHelper<T, U>(
+        _ nodes: T,
+        hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self
+    ) -> MaybeEither<U, Data32>
+        where T: RandomAccessCollection<U>, T.Index == Int, U: DataPtrRepresentable
+    {
+        switch nodes.count {
+        case 0:
+            return .init(right: Data32())
+        case 1:
+            return .init(left: nodes.first!)
+        default:
+            let midIndex = nodes.startIndex + half(nodes.count)
+            let l = nodes[nodes.startIndex ..< midIndex]
+            let r = nodes[midIndex ..< nodes.endIndex]
+            var hash = hasher.init()
+            hash.update("node")
+            hash.update(binaryMerklizeHelper(l).value)
+            hash.update(binaryMerklizeHelper(r).value)
+            return .init(right: hash.finalize())
+        }
+    }
+
+    // well-balanced binary Merkle function defined in GP E.1.1
+    public static func binaryMerklize<T: RandomAccessCollection<Data>>(_ nodes: T, hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self) -> Data32
+        where T.Index == Int
+    {
+        switch binaryMerklizeHelper(nodes, hasher: hasher).value {
+        case let .left(data):
+            hasher.hash(data: data)
+        case let .right(data):
+            data
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static func traceImpl<T, U>(
+        _ nodes: T,
+        index: T.Index,
+        hasher: Hashing.Type,
+        output: (MaybeEither<U, Data32>) -> Void
+    )
+        where T: RandomAccessCollection<U>, T.Index == Int, U: DataPtrRepresentable
+    {
+        if nodes.count == 0 {
+            return
+        }
+
+        func selectPart(left: Bool, nodes: T, index: T.Index) -> T.SubSequence {
+            let h = half(nodes.count)
+            if (index < h) == left {
+                return nodes[nodes.startIndex ..< nodes.startIndex + h]
+            } else {
+                return nodes[nodes.startIndex + h ..< nodes.endIndex]
+            }
+        }
+
+        func selectIndex(nodes: T, index: T.Index) -> T.Index {
+            let h = half(nodes.count)
+            if index < h {
+                return 0
+            }
+            return h
+        }
+
+        let l = binaryMerklizeHelper(selectPart(left: true, nodes: nodes, index: index), hasher: hasher)
+        output(l)
+        traceImpl(
+            selectPart(left: false, nodes: nodes, index: index),
+            index: index - selectIndex(nodes: nodes, index: index),
+            hasher: hasher,
+            output: output
+        )
+    }
+
+    public static func trace<T, U>(
+        _ nodes: T,
+        index: T.Index,
+        hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self
+    ) -> [Either<U, Data32>]
+        where T: RandomAccessCollection<U>, T.Index == Int, U: DataPtrRepresentable
+    {
+        var res: [Either<U, Data32>] = []
+        traceImpl(nodes, index: index, hasher: hasher) { res.append($0.value) }
+        return res
+    }
+
+    private static func constancyPreprocessor(
+        _ nodes: some RandomAccessCollection<Data>,
+        hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self
+    ) -> [Data32] {
+        let length = UInt32(nodes.count)
+        let newLength = Int(length.nextPowerOfTwo ?? 0)
+        var res: [Data32] = []
+        res.reserveCapacity(newLength)
+        for node in nodes {
+            var hash = hasher.init()
+            hash.update("leaf")
+            hash.update(node)
+            res.append(hash.finalize())
+        }
+        // fill the rest with zeros
+        for _ in nodes.count ..< newLength {
+            res.append(Data32())
+        }
+        return res
+    }
+
+    // constant-depth binary merkle function defined in GP E.1.2
+    public static func constantDepthMerklize<T: RandomAccessCollection<Data>>(_ nodes: T, hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self) -> Data32
+        where T.Index == Int
+    {
+        binaryMerklizeHelper(constancyPreprocessor(nodes, hasher: hasher)).unwrapped
+    }
+
+    public static func generateJustification<T>(
+        _ nodes: T,
+        index: T.Index,
+        hasher: Hashing.Type = Blake2b256.self
+    ) -> [Data32]
+        where T: RandomAccessCollection<Data>, T.Index == Int
+    {
+        var res: [Data32] = []
+        traceImpl(constancyPreprocessor(nodes, hasher: hasher), index: index, hasher: hasher) { res.append($0.unwrapped) }
+        return res
+    }
+}
diff --git a/Utils/Sources/Utils/merklization.swift b/Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/StateMerklization.swift
similarity index 100%
rename from Utils/Sources/Utils/merklization.swift
rename to Utils/Sources/Utils/Merklization/StateMerklization.swift
diff --git a/Utils/Tests/UtilsTests/FixedWidthIntegerTests.swift b/Utils/Tests/UtilsTests/FixedWidthIntegerTests.swift
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7f2b9568
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Utils/Tests/UtilsTests/FixedWidthIntegerTests.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+import Testing
+
+@testable import Utils
+
+struct FixedWidthIntegerTests {
+    @Test func nextPowerOfTwo() throws {
+        #expect(UInt8(0).nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+        #expect(UInt8(1).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(1))
+        #expect(UInt8(2).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(2))
+        #expect(UInt8(3).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(4))
+        #expect(UInt8(4).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(4))
+        #expect(UInt8(5).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(8))
+        #expect(UInt8(8).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(8))
+        #expect(UInt8(127).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(128))
+        #expect(UInt8(128).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt8(128))
+        #expect(UInt8(129).nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+        #expect(UInt8(255).nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+
+        #expect(UInt32(0).nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+        #expect(UInt32(1).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt32(1))
+        #expect(UInt32(2).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt32(2))
+        #expect(UInt32(511).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt32(512))
+        #expect(UInt32(512).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt32(512))
+        #expect(UInt32(513).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt32(1024))
+        #expect(UInt32(0x7FFF_FFFF).nextPowerOfTwo == UInt32(0x8000_0000))
+        #expect(UInt32(0xF000_0000).nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+        #expect(UInt32(0xF000_0001).nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+        #expect(UInt32.max.nextPowerOfTwo == nil)
+    }
+}