Merge pull request #4 from Polpetta/Lesson610

Lesson 6.10.2017 modified

res/sections/11-Les06102016.tex

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-\section{Information about course}
+\section{Informations about course}
 
 \begin{itemize}
   \item 3 parts: information and biology, practice, make sense of the genome
@@ -12,48 +12,97 @@ \section{Information about course}
 \section{Biology and Information Technology}
 
 There is a strong link between life and information because life represents a
-"natural" mechanism by which information is able to organize itself.
+``natural'' mechanism by which information is able to organize itself.
 
 \subsection{Life}
-Life is not only on our planet, there is also extra terrestrial life.
-Also programs are a subset of life $programs \subseteq life$. A thing is living
+Life is not only in our planet, there is also extra terrestrial life.
+Programs are a subset of life $programs \subseteq life$. A thing is living
 when for a given input it produce an output.
 
+Biological organisms contain a program and information. The information of 
+biological organisms is contained in \textbf{DNA}.
+
+Part of this information is used to encode proteins (in mammals protein coding 
+sequences are less than 2 percent of the genome).
+
+The genetic program is essentially a \textbf{self replicating program}.
+
+\subsection{Basic concept about DNA}
+
+Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used 
+in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms
+ and many viruses. 
+
+DNA and RNA are \textbf{nucleic acids}.
+
+Most DNA molecules consist of \textbf{two biopolymer strands} coiled (\textit{spirali}) 
+around each other to form a double helix.
+
+The two DNA strands are termed polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler monomer 
+units called \textbf{nucleotides}.
+
+Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases—either 
+cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)—and a sugar called deoxyribose 
+and a phosphate group. 
+
+The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar 
+of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate 
+backbone.
+
+DNA stores biological information. 
+The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage (\textit{rottura}), and both strands of the 
+double-stranded structure store the same biological information. 
+This information is replicated as and when the two strands separate. 
+
+A large part of DNA (more than 98 \% for humans) is \textbf{non-coding}, meaning that these 
+sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.
+
+The two strands of DNA \textbf{run in opposite directions} to each other and are thus 
+antiparallel. 
+
+Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). 
+It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological 
+information.
+
+RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called \textbf{transcription}. 
+Under the genetic code, these RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino 
+acids within proteins in a process called translation.
+
 \subsection{Evolution}
 
-Three billion years ago some life (biology) originate, and this after millions
-of years originated modern life (bacteria, animals). All of this information
+Three billion years ago some life (biology) originated, and then after millions
+of years modern life (bacteria, animals, \dots) came in. All of this information
 it's in the DNA. With the \textit{cultural evolution} we have information going
 out from DNA, for example the ability to invent tools like computing machines.
 
 An important thing it's that computer can learn, and it's possible to produce
-intelligent and self-conscious machine, that will be able to improve themselves,
+intelligent and self-conscious machines, that will be able to improve themselves,
 creating a \textit{singularity}.
 
-In 1953 scientist found that was possible to change DNA to make different forms
+In 1953 scientist found that was possible to change DNA to produce different forms
 of life. People didn't believe that DNA contain all the information.
 But it make sense that the information it's make from 4 amino acid, because
 information it's difficult to duplicate.
 
-\paragraph*{Proteins} Proteins are little "machine" that are able to do a lot
-of works. The problem it's how do you encode DNA to make protein? This is a
+\paragraph*{Proteins} Proteins are little ``machines'' that are able to do lot
+of works. The problem is: ``how do you encode DNA to make protein?'' This is a
 \textbf{central dogma}. It was discovered that from DNA you go to RNA and
 finally to Protein thanks to ribosomes.
-The main problem it was how you can have all the information with only
+The main problem was how you can have all the information with only
 4 nucleotide.
 
 \paragraph*{Transfer RNA} tRNA is a molecule that has an Anticodon that with
-the help of a ribosome it search for a matching RNA pattern. Every tRNA has a
+the help of a ribosome it searches for a matching RNA pattern. Every tRNA has a
 proper amino acid associated, that when put together it will create a protein.
 
 \subsubsection{PCR: Polymerize Chain Reaction}
-PCR is a technique to amplify a single of a few copies of a piece of DNA across
+PCR is a technique to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across
 several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to million of copies of that
 particular DNA fragment.
 
 \subsubsection{RNA evolution in vitro}
-Some nice experiments were done in the 90's by Szostak at Harward, to product
-in vitro evolution of RNA molecules. In these case "software" and "hardware"
+Some nice experiments were done in the 90's by Szostak at Harward, to produce
+in vitro evolution of RNA molecules. In these case ``software'' and ``hardware''
 are represented by the same physical term: RNA.
 
 One or the first experiments of this kind was about the evolution of an RNA