core: remove thread local caching of the global default subscriber (#…

…2593)

## Motivation

Currently, when a call to `dispatcher::get_default` occurs, `tracing`
will check the thread-local default dispatcher first. If a thread-local
scoped default is set, it is returned. Otherwise, the thread will then
check the global default. If a global default is present, it is then
cached in the thread local, so that subsequent calls do not need to
check the global default.

Unfortunately, this behavior results in issues if the scoped default is
accessed (e.g. using `get_default` or creating a new span) *prior* to a
global default being set. When `get_default` runs for the first time and
there is no global default, a `none` dispatcher is cached as the
thread-local default. This means that the thread will now behave as
though its default dispatcher is `None` until the scoped default is
overridden, even if a global default is then set later. This is quite
bad, and results in issues such as #2587, #2436, and #2411.

## Solution

This branch makes several changes to remove the use of the thread-local
caching of the global default dispatcher, and to lessen the performance
impact of doing so.

On the `master` (v0.2.x) branch, we track the number of scoped
dispatchers currently active, and use it to determine whether or not to
check thread-local storage at all. This optimization was introduced in
PR #1017. This branch backports a similar change to `v0.1.x`.

In addition, #1017 also changes the dispatcher module to represent a
`Dispatch` internally using an enum of either an `Arc` in the case where
the dispatcher is scoped, or a `&'static dyn Subscriber + Send + Sync`
reference when the dispatcher is the global default. This makes cloning
and constructing the global default cheaper, and also allows us to
change the `None` dispatcher into a static singleton. That means that
the use of a `None` dispatcher no longer requires an allocation and arc
reference bump, an issue which was previously resolved by locally
caching a `None` dispatcher. A side benefit of this change is that
*cloning* a `Dispatch` is substantially cheaper when the dispatcher is a
global default, as it's just an `&'static` reference and no `Arc` bump
is necessary. This will also make cloning a `Span` cheaper when the
global default dispatcher is in use.

Finally, because the overhead of getting the global default is
substantially reduced, we are able to change the scoped default
dispatcher's behavior to remove the caching entirely. This means that
the category of bugs involving the local cache becoming stale is
resolved entirely.

Fixes #2587
Fixes #2436
Fixes #2411
Closes #2592

## Performance Impact

This change results in a change in performance characteristics. Running
the benchmarks, we observe a significant improvement in performance in
most of the benchmarks that use the global default dispatcher, and a
noticeable decrease in performance for some benchmarks using the scoped
default. In my opinion, this performance change is acceptable, as a
global default dispatcher is the common case for most users, and is
generally expected to perform better than the scoped default. In
addition, resolving the variety of bugs that are caused by the local
caching of the default when using the scoped default dispatcher is worth
a performance cost when the scoped default is in use.

<details>
<summary>Benchmark results:</summary>

```
     Running benches/baseline.rs (target/release/deps/baseline-9b70733ce49582d2)
comparison/relaxed_load time:   [456.48 ps 456.55 ps 456.63 ps]
                        change: [+3.0281% +3.3135% +3.5664%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 10 outliers among 100 measurements (10.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  5 (5.00%) high severe
comparison/acquire_load time:   [438.98 ps 439.32 ps 439.76 ps]
                        change: [-0.3725% -0.2092% -0.0614%] (p = 0.01 < 0.05)
                        Change within noise threshold.
Found 12 outliers among 100 measurements (12.00%)
  2 (2.00%) high mild
  10 (10.00%) high severe
comparison/log          time:   [227.05 ps 227.14 ps 227.27 ps]
                        change: [+3.1351% +3.2984% +3.4537%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 14 outliers among 100 measurements (14.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  9 (9.00%) high severe
```
```
     Running benches/dispatch_get_clone.rs (target/release/deps/dispatch_get_clone-d4d6ca1f9895e432)
Dispatch::get_clone/none
                        time:   [8.3974 ns 8.4004 ns 8.4039 ns]
                        change: [-22.870% -22.796% -22.728%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 10 outliers among 100 measurements (10.00%)
  1 (1.00%) low severe
  1 (1.00%) low mild
  4 (4.00%) high mild
  4 (4.00%) high severe
Dispatch::get_clone/scoped
                        time:   [15.877 ns 15.959 ns 16.045 ns]
                        change: [+52.358% +52.943% +53.500%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 16 outliers among 100 measurements (16.00%)
  2 (2.00%) high mild
  14 (14.00%) high severe
Dispatch::get_clone/global
                        time:   [8.3962 ns 8.4000 ns 8.4054 ns]
                        change: [-19.126% -18.961% -18.817%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 15 outliers among 100 measurements (15.00%)
  2 (2.00%) low severe
  6 (6.00%) high mild
  7 (7.00%) high severe
```
```
     Running benches/dispatch_get_ref.rs (target/release/deps/dispatch_get_ref-6ce05749a0b1bf87)
Dispatch::get_ref/none  time:   [1.7551 ns 1.7564 ns 1.7579 ns]
                        change: [-51.858% -51.749% -51.644%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 10 outliers among 100 measurements (10.00%)
  3 (3.00%) low mild
  2 (2.00%) high mild
  5 (5.00%) high severe
Dispatch::get_ref/scoped
                        time:   [3.6341 ns 3.6365 ns 3.6397 ns]
                        change: [-2.6892% -2.5955% -2.4968%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 12 outliers among 100 measurements (12.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  7 (7.00%) high severe
Dispatch::get_ref/global
                        time:   [1.7668 ns 1.7686 ns 1.7713 ns]
                        change: [-52.697% -52.647% -52.603%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 7 outliers among 100 measurements (7.00%)
  2 (2.00%) high mild
  5 (5.00%) high severe
```
```
     Running benches/empty_span.rs (target/release/deps/empty_span-745c777d77b8b7ca)
empty_span/none         time:   [227.02 ps 227.10 ps 227.20 ps]
                        change: [-0.1729% -0.0705% +0.0495%] (p = 0.24 > 0.05)
                        No change in performance detected.
Found 10 outliers among 100 measurements (10.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  5 (5.00%) high severe
empty_span/scoped       time:   [218.51 ps 218.69 ps 218.90 ps]
                        change: [-0.7582% -0.6056% -0.4630%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Change within noise threshold.
Found 8 outliers among 100 measurements (8.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  3 (3.00%) high severe
empty_span/global       time:   [217.85 ps 218.15 ps 218.56 ps]
                        change: [-2.6528% -2.4341% -2.1602%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 8 outliers among 100 measurements (8.00%)
  4 (4.00%) high mild
  4 (4.00%) high severe
empty_span/baseline_struct
                        time:   [655.54 ps 656.09 ps 656.76 ps]
                        change: [-1.6595% -1.4125% -1.1776%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 7 outliers among 100 measurements (7.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  2 (2.00%) high severe
```
```
     Running benches/enter_span.rs (target/release/deps/enter_span-7fc1c2a69c076475)
enter_span/none         time:   [0.0000 ps 0.0000 ps 0.0000 ps]
                        change: [-43.600% +6.5764% +109.38%] (p = 0.86 > 0.05)
                        No change in performance detected.
Found 14 outliers among 100 measurements (14.00%)
  6 (6.00%) high mild
  8 (8.00%) high severe
enter_span/scoped       time:   [2.6513 ns 2.6567 ns 2.6641 ns]
                        change: [+0.3121% +1.9504% +3.4648%] (p = 0.01 < 0.05)
                        Change within noise threshold.
Found 9 outliers among 100 measurements (9.00%)
  2 (2.00%) high mild
  7 (7.00%) high severe
enter_span/global       time:   [3.2108 ns 3.2160 ns 3.2220 ns]
                        change: [+25.963% +26.742% +27.434%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 2 outliers among 100 measurements (2.00%)
  2 (2.00%) high mild
```
```
     Running benches/event.rs (target/release/deps/event-6742eef6ebe07aa4)
event/none              time:   [227.04 ps 227.18 ps 227.41 ps]
                        change: [-1.6751% -1.5743% -1.4711%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 13 outliers among 100 measurements (13.00%)
  6 (6.00%) high mild
  7 (7.00%) high severe
event/scoped            time:   [8.3849 ns 8.4335 ns 8.4888 ns]
                        change: [-3.4754% -3.0252% -2.6092%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 5 outliers among 100 measurements (5.00%)
  3 (3.00%) high mild
  2 (2.00%) high severe
event/scoped_recording  time:   [36.916 ns 37.022 ns 37.194 ns]
                        change: [+8.1054% +18.714% +30.381%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 10 outliers among 100 measurements (10.00%)
  1 (1.00%) low mild
  2 (2.00%) high mild
  7 (7.00%) high severe
event/global            time:   [6.9694 ns 7.1677 ns 7.3469 ns]
                        change: [-23.407% -21.940% -20.398%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
```
```
     Running benches/span_fields.rs (target/release/deps/span_fields-96dfd0a8a577dec6)
span_fields/none        time:   [3.5936 ns 3.6008 ns 3.6106 ns]
                        change: [+17.160% +17.776% +18.413%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 14 outliers among 100 measurements (14.00%)
  8 (8.00%) high mild
  6 (6.00%) high severe
span_fields/scoped      time:   [33.751 ns 33.765 ns 33.779 ns]
                        change: [+22.689% +22.873% +23.037%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 7 outliers among 100 measurements (7.00%)
  1 (1.00%) low mild
  4 (4.00%) high mild
  2 (2.00%) high severe
span_fields/scoped_recording
                        time:   [270.22 ns 270.55 ns 270.91 ns]
                        change: [+10.615% +10.827% +11.028%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 6 outliers among 100 measurements (6.00%)
  6 (6.00%) high mild
span_fields/global      time:   [28.337 ns 28.428 ns 28.527 ns]
                        change: [+3.0582% +3.3355% +3.6278%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 13 outliers among 100 measurements (13.00%)
  13 (13.00%) high mild
```
```
     Running benches/span_no_fields.rs (target/release/deps/span_no_fields-f8c7d7a84f720442)
span_no_fields/none     time:   [1.5467 ns 1.5507 ns 1.5553 ns]
                        change: [+12.966% +13.206% +13.434%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 8 outliers among 100 measurements (8.00%)
  7 (7.00%) high mild
  1 (1.00%) high severe
span_no_fields/scoped   time:   [17.796 ns 17.810 ns 17.826 ns]
                        change: [+1.0381% +1.1673% +1.2914%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 12 outliers among 100 measurements (12.00%)
  6 (6.00%) high mild
  6 (6.00%) high severe
span_no_fields/scoped_recording
                        time:   [30.397 ns 30.459 ns 30.524 ns]
                        change: [-0.8489% -0.6268% -0.3915%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Change within noise threshold.
span_no_fields/global   time:   [12.747 ns 12.791 ns 12.844 ns]
                        change: [-27.930% -27.672% -27.386%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
```
```
     Running benches/span_repeated.rs (target/release/deps/span_repeated-03bfaaf4ecd13d36)
span_repeated/none      time:   [699.28 ns 699.84 ns 700.53 ns]
                        change: [+2.4125% +2.6359% +2.8862%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 9 outliers among 100 measurements (9.00%)
  7 (7.00%) high mild
  2 (2.00%) high severe
span_repeated/scoped    time:   [2.5029 µs 2.5057 µs 2.5090 µs]
                        change: [+4.5095% +4.6605% +4.8122%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has regressed.
Found 16 outliers among 100 measurements (16.00%)
  8 (8.00%) low mild
  6 (6.00%) high mild
  2 (2.00%) high severe
span_repeated/scoped_recording
                        time:   [5.0509 µs 5.0535 µs 5.0566 µs]
                        change: [+0.7346% +1.0724% +1.3718%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Change within noise threshold.
Found 13 outliers among 100 measurements (13.00%)
  6 (6.00%) high mild
  7 (7.00%) high severe
span_repeated/global    time:   [2.1264 µs 2.1272 µs 2.1282 µs]
                        change: [-11.213% -11.119% -11.031%] (p = 0.00 < 0.05)
                        Performance has improved.
Found 10 outliers among 100 measurements (10.00%)
  5 (5.00%) high mild
  5 (5.00%) high severe
```

</details>